tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-44961405227865448362024-03-05T11:16:58.282-08:00Nottingham Science BlogTwitter:@nottsscience FB:NottinghamScience Unknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger192125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-42831859956846984582019-06-16T09:00:00.000-07:002019-06-16T09:00:14.544-07:00Talk : Nottingham's role in discovering the structure of DNA <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">Interesting British Science Association talk recently by Prof Stephen Harding at the University of Nottingham on Nottingham's role in the discovery of the structure of DNA. A video of the talk, with a great deal more information than is in these partial notes, can be found on <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wQHYSixvKVY">Youtube</a>. <br/><br/>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Prof Harding</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9mtO4embJBP_TED0Yfrdkcm7gvUZjyp8O6U5M9XS1aQ6XCjgpVW0OHWc10qstOvBZvq3-hqRIOqaRaSuuqhcdAAGNx4CNS4QDXHL_7RLgGh6aPbpuoqDrn9qEev493Eg_T2MCUp3h609v/s1600/Eukaryote_DNA-en.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="632" data-original-width="1024" height="197" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9mtO4embJBP_TED0Yfrdkcm7gvUZjyp8O6U5M9XS1aQ6XCjgpVW0OHWc10qstOvBZvq3-hqRIOqaRaSuuqhcdAAGNx4CNS4QDXHL_7RLgGh6aPbpuoqDrn9qEev493Eg_T2MCUp3h609v/s320/Eukaryote_DNA-en.svg.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Where DNA is located in cells(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA#/media/File:Eukaryote_DNA-en.svg">source</a>)</td></tr>
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Prof Harding began by taking the audience back to Germany in 1869, where Johanns Friedrich Miescher first discovered and isolated <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid">nucleic acid</a> from white blood cells. <br/><br/>
Later, in 1910, Phoebus Levene, who was working at the Rockefeller Institute in New York, identified the components of DNA but believed that they were organised in a fixed, repeating structure, and thus unable to carry information. Instead, the scientific consensus at the time was that the proteins in chromosones were where the genetic information was encoded. DNA was viewed as perhaps being a store of phosphorus.<br/><br/>
Moving forward to 1938, Prof Harding talked about Florence Bell and William Astbury at Leeds University who performed some of the first X-ray crystallography[a method of determining chemical structure] studies of DNA (see <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/heritage/Astbury/Bell_Thesis/index.html">here</a> for more information). Although they had impure samples they were able to discern a layered structure and the distance between the DNA units - information that would be valuable to later researchers.<br/><br/>
It was then noted that the DNA content of cells doubled just before cell division, putting the focus back on DNA as a possible location for the genetic code. This view was bolstered by experiments by Oswald Avery, again at the Rockefeller Institute.<br/><br/>
It was around this time that Nottingham (or rather University College Nottingham, as it was then) played an important role in the understanding of DNA, with three key papers being published in 1947 by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Masson_Gulland">Professor John Masson Gulland</a> and colleagues <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Jordan">Denis Jordan</a>, Cedric Threlfall, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Creeth">Michael Creeth</a>, with the work being done in what is now B34.9, in the languages section of the Trent Building, Nottingham University Campus.<br/><br/>
The first paper described how to produce high quality DNA samples, critical to obtaining useful information from crystallography studies. The paper showed how an untracentrifuge could be used to improve the purity of the samples, together with rigouous attention to detail throughout the testing process: <br/>
Gulland JM, Jordan D. O., and Threlfall C. J., (1947) Deoxypentose nucleic acids. Part I. Preparation of the tetrasodium salt of the deoxypentose nucleic acid of calf thymus. J Chem Soc. 1947; 25: 1129–31<br /><br />
The second paper investigated the viscosity of DNA and found the viscosity to be relatively high, suggesting that it was a long rod like molecule, unlike protein molecules which were typical round and compact.<br/>
Creeth, J.M., Gulland, J.M. and Jordan, D.O. (1947) Deoxypentose nucleic acids. Part III. Viscosity and streaming birefringence of solutions of the sodium salt of the deoxypentose nucleic acid of calf thymus. J. Chem. Soc. 1947,25 1141–1145<br /><br />
The third paper showed that something was preventing the amine groups from reacting, suggesting the presence of hydrogen bonds. In his PhD thesis of 1947, Creeth correctly predicted that DNA consisted of two chains, connected by hydrogen bonds that were strong enough to hold the chains together but weak enough to allow the two chains to be pulled apart and copied during cell division. Creeth also suggested that DNA might have a helical form, based on the tendency of nature to coil up large natural structures.<br/>
JM Gulland; DO Jordan; HF Taylor; (1947) Deoxypentose nucleic acids; Part II electrometric titration of the acidic and the basic groups of the deoxypentose nucleic acid of calf thymus. J Chem Soc. 1947; 25:1131–41.<br /><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYZ1W1GDuCKIEwUSdbFVS68qYk6OUr6ykBeC_0JJ3feW4WNZ5kArwMQv3iPhkp8PpGJdFrWzJbjjP5xES4tAPTwESUKmGmYWH0x3USZutryMOs_dHMCNSqfT31P4EP1T8frKuuIcnmHWf8/s1600/creeth+current+comparison.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="618" data-original-width="584" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYZ1W1GDuCKIEwUSdbFVS68qYk6OUr6ykBeC_0JJ3feW4WNZ5kArwMQv3iPhkp8PpGJdFrWzJbjjP5xES4tAPTwESUKmGmYWH0x3USZutryMOs_dHMCNSqfT31P4EP1T8frKuuIcnmHWf8/s320/creeth+current+comparison.JPG" width="302" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Comparison of Creeth's proposed DNA structure (left) with actual DNA structure(right)(<a href="http://www.biochemsoctrans.org/content/early/2018/09/05/BST20180158">link</a>)</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjP1sOU2QXn19JTL3RchHbKCZpCGN3j-B0EukpFKx2-dT8SO0S03sffZWcwVkEpu5nR2525bS0iQw4FCaaHAO_XKj_Bo-ghUTL0RMSFRu0jo0xPE9kVLj8X716VBFS8j_hbqB0dYnVDDBCD/s1600/creeth+dna+structure.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="586" data-original-width="236" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjP1sOU2QXn19JTL3RchHbKCZpCGN3j-B0EukpFKx2-dT8SO0S03sffZWcwVkEpu5nR2525bS0iQw4FCaaHAO_XKj_Bo-ghUTL0RMSFRu0jo0xPE9kVLj8X716VBFS8j_hbqB0dYnVDDBCD/s320/creeth+dna+structure.JPG" width="128" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Model of Creeth's DNA structure</td></tr>
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Soon after, however, the team dispersed which ended the departments frontline research into DNA.<br/><br/>
These papers proved very useful to later researchers. Watson James Watson (who, together with Francis Crick finally decoded the structure of DNA) wrote that "...a rereading of J. M. Gulland's and D. O. Jordan's papers...made me finally realize the strength of their conclusion that a large fraction, if not all, of the bases formed hydrogen bonds to other bases." <br/><br/>
Creeth also later commented “In hindsight, we had been given not just a glimpse, but a good view of that particular bonding that is nothing less than the key to life on this planet.”<br/><br/>
In 1950 to so-called "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Chargaff#Chargaff's_rules">Chargraff Rules</a>" were formed, one of which stated that, of the four "letters" in the DNA code - C, A G and T; there is an equal amount of A and T and equal amounts of C and G. This is important as it hints at the way DNA stores information. If you have one strand of the double helix, you can work out what the other strand will be as A will always be paired with T and C will always be paired with G. This is also how nature can take DNA and make an exact copy.<br/><br/>
1952 X ray diffraction images of highly purified DNA. The value of this can be seen when comparing the X-ray images of DNA from Florence Bell in 1938 (left) and Rosalind Franklin (right) - the cross seen at the centre of the image on the right was a clear indicator of a twisted helix structure.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqBX3LrPDee04Cga6YMpFNLbG0vwD-vqPTvkSe8-AjhrXULTPMxOPcsJgLGHmp0YLrffKewf2I9c-r_HreLBmdl5vnQPEvPxVLEIkOLNxZc4bRjTFDP_XgwxbQmOAWp-fh_nE80-ZQlds_/s1600/florence+bell+DNA.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="342" data-original-width="350" height="312" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqBX3LrPDee04Cga6YMpFNLbG0vwD-vqPTvkSe8-AjhrXULTPMxOPcsJgLGHmp0YLrffKewf2I9c-r_HreLBmdl5vnQPEvPxVLEIkOLNxZc4bRjTFDP_XgwxbQmOAWp-fh_nE80-ZQlds_/s320/florence+bell+DNA.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">1938 Xray Diffraction (Bell and Astbury)</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9uSalRZbsEM-hli4HFj4nNZExBinqC_iXqv6ZcTOdgNMOOqq1M7MpghcN1mYJQLbxCbACkvJHzhWuqcQ4ev5Y_LtYha6JkVu73jR73MUq6h8D3yIt8KcTp6xlnaPZfauDgSZs1TnqosN5/s1600/Photo_51_x-ray_diffraction_image.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="322" data-original-width="317" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9uSalRZbsEM-hli4HFj4nNZExBinqC_iXqv6ZcTOdgNMOOqq1M7MpghcN1mYJQLbxCbACkvJHzhWuqcQ4ev5Y_LtYha6JkVu73jR73MUq6h8D3yIt8KcTp6xlnaPZfauDgSZs1TnqosN5/s320/Photo_51_x-ray_diffraction_image.jpg" width="315" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">1952 X ray, with central cross showing evidence of a helical structure (Franklin and Gosling)(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photo_51">source</a>)</td></tr>
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Finally, and famously, it was Watson and Crick who, in 1953, were able to determine the structure of DNA, using information from a number of sources. Prof Harding mentioned that the story is well told in the 1987 Jeff Goldblum starring film "Race for the Double Helix"/"Life Story" which is available <a href="https://vimeo.com/179934156">here</a>.<br/><br/>
Worth noting that there were a great many researchers also trying to solve this puzzle. For example, just a few months earlier, in Feb 1953, , Months earlier, Linus Pauling and Robert Corey, in the US, proposed a model for nucleic acids containing three intertwined chains, with the phosphates near the axis, and the bases on the outside. Pauling later said that his lack of access to the high quality Xray crystallography images being generated in the UK at the time by Rosalind Franklin were a factor in his structure being incorrect.<br /><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTTsEAhNX1Zd9Z7tuFrqDZjbhR1w6NwIlracPnet1ULq6aDyND1uPBU6HYh2-4NuIpxgyVRVl4MO0AezfaR7dgwevWhgKRpiIVCOWlKzvUl4CJ7W9HVUFMZsk8MT-am-lYqv9GBYggA5TI/s1600/dna+detail.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="483" data-original-width="429" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTTsEAhNX1Zd9Z7tuFrqDZjbhR1w6NwIlracPnet1ULq6aDyND1uPBU6HYh2-4NuIpxgyVRVl4MO0AezfaR7dgwevWhgKRpiIVCOWlKzvUl4CJ7W9HVUFMZsk8MT-am-lYqv9GBYggA5TI/s320/dna+detail.JPG" width="284" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Detailed structure of DNA, showing location of hydrogen bonds and Sugar-Phosphate backbones</td></tr>
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Below are a number of links to further articles on Nottingham's role in the story of DNA:<br />
http://www.biochemsoctrans.org/content/early/2018/09/05/BST20180158<br />
https://www.realclearscience.com/articles/2017/11/14/the_forgotten_scientist_whose_work_led_to_finding_dnas_structure_110456.html<br />
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/300532397_James_Michael_Creeth_1924-2010<br />
https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/dr-michael-creeth-scientist-who-helped-pave-the-way-for-watson-and-crick-1930695.html<br />
https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/ncmh/documents/papers/Paper340.pdf<br />
https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/the-dna-story/3003946.article<br /><br/>
If you want to really dig deep, Wiki <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology">page on Molecular Biology</a> is a fascinating place to start. <br /><br />
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-47842896363622323932018-02-12T17:53:00.002-08:002018-02-12T18:06:02.747-08:00Talk : Predatory bacteria to treat infection<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
Fascinating recent talk by <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/life-sciences/people/liz.sockett">Prof Liz Sockett</a> on "Cafe Sci: Predatory bacteria to treat infection" which described research done by Prof Sockett and colleagues <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/life-sciences/people/christopher.moore">Chris Moore</a>, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alex_Willis3">Alex Willis</a> and <a href="http://www.imperial.ac.uk/people/s.mostowy/research.html">Dr Serge Mostowy</a> looking at how certain types of bacteria can be used to fight infection, as can be seen in this <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-38077263">BBC article</a> on the teams research. <br/><br/>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Prof Sockett, together with charming and cuddly visual aids </td></tr>
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Prof Socketts talk had three major characters :<br/><br/>
i) The bacteria <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigella">Shigella</a>, which causes dystentry and kills hundreds of thousands around the world each year. <br/><br/>
ii) The predatory bacteria <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bdellovibrio">Bdellovibrio</a>, which, although smaller, can attack Shigella by burrowing into the Shigella bacteria and eating it up from the inside. It then reproduces inside the remains of the Shigella bacteria, with the multiple, newly formed Bdellovibrio then bursting out from the husk of the Shigella in a manner that is perhaps best described as Alien-stylee. This whole process takes around 4hrs.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bdellovibrio life cycle (<a href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)31152-6">credit</a>)</td></tr>
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ii) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebrafish">Zebrafish larvae</a>, which are often used as a model organism in medical research because they share many similarities to humans in the way their bodily systems function and are easily studied, the latter quality helped by the larvae being transparent so that interactions within their bodies can be viewed as they happen with a microscope. To allow the small ~1-2mm long larvae to be viewed, they are anesthetised so that they are asleep, then placed on a pad of sticky agar in a water filled dish. Critically, dozens of larvae can be prepared for each experiment, and experiments typically last a few days. This means that sufficient data is generated for statistically significant trends to be determined (compare, for example, with trying to be sure about the validity of results of a test on just 5 mice).<br/><br/>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A transparent Zebrafish larvae</td></tr>
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Firstly, Prof Sockett and team looked at what happened when they injected just Dbellovibrio into the hind-brain of zebrafish larvae (they used the hind-brain as the blood-brain barrier would ensure that the bacteria would remain in this area during the test). The work was reported in the Open Access paper "<a href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)31152-6">Injections of Predatory Bacteria Work Alongside Host Immune Cells to Treat Shigella Infection in Zebrafish Larvae</a>". In the image below you can see (on the left) that the numbers of Bdellovibrio bacteria decreases over time, as they are attacked by the larvaes own white blood cells and because they have no pathogen bacteria to invade and use for reproduction. And on the right you can see that none of the larvae died - showing the Bdellovibrio is not harmful to the larvae.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDlGhRj4-M2vXP3x4QIh-LaDvFocsluUIawaqaOzkdxHi_XcjEDOJ4qPuBbhzSFvRnXRKAEQJktNafwpUklNmht3AAHEnhOzKmfmyn7s5nnwCev426g9-PTx5QTcAIIREt4N7lSEgs21u-/s1600/bdello+only.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="374" data-original-width="738" height="162" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDlGhRj4-M2vXP3x4QIh-LaDvFocsluUIawaqaOzkdxHi_XcjEDOJ4qPuBbhzSFvRnXRKAEQJktNafwpUklNmht3AAHEnhOzKmfmyn7s5nnwCev426g9-PTx5QTcAIIREt4N7lSEgs21u-/s320/bdello+only.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Effect of injecting Bdellovibrio only (<a href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)31152-6">credit</a>)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Then the researchers injected Shigella bacteria that had been modified to glow green under UV light, as you can see below, they grew rapidly and killed many of the larvea after 3-4 days. Other work (with glowing white blood cells), showed that, for reasons not yet known, the larvae's white blood cell response was not activated by the Shigella.<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoNE7eNFtdgUlt3Xrb-d7QUcb9pe23D3bRnqiqfSz6FwTdjWLYrMWidOiUOaKE2iuQmEqC7dYZw1GXFRnoF2iehgoyMHYrUXflg83qG423PG1-ewvgzyX6FdTwOvN6x8tTId9t3RdxwFPG/s1600/shigella+alone.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="289" data-original-width="663" height="139" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoNE7eNFtdgUlt3Xrb-d7QUcb9pe23D3bRnqiqfSz6FwTdjWLYrMWidOiUOaKE2iuQmEqC7dYZw1GXFRnoF2iehgoyMHYrUXflg83qG423PG1-ewvgzyX6FdTwOvN6x8tTId9t3RdxwFPG/s320/shigella+alone.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Over time (left to right), when Shigella only injected,<br /> the Shigella bacteria grow and kill most of the Zebrafish larvae (<a href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)31152-6">credit</a>)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Next, the team injected Shigella (green glowing) and Dbellovibrio (red glowing) and saw that the Dbellovibrio bacteria (red) attacked the Shigella and grew inn numbers, with the amount of Shigella (green) reducing over time. They were also able to see (in other research) that the Dbellovibrio provoked the immune system to respond, sending white blood cells to attack both the Shigella and the Bdellovibri - this was an unexpected bonus! One point that was made was that whereas antibiotics use a single line of attack to kill bacteria, and so are vulnerable to bacteria evolving resistance; predatory bacteria use many different attack techniques at the same time, which makes it hard for pathogens to build resistance to them. This is one reason why predatory bacteria have been able to survive for millions of years.<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2Z5DA-c_hSQuhYzegg2yZM-BKf_oa99EMgLq53rZ56silG-KuM8cQJtMxwsJYQmiIjCM1_8DWJbURqkJNuhOM1ZngOSYsvmhIIvp10PCvvWRRryVJyhGZWkqO5qe5DVZ1aaVD0Tj3uLIF/s1600/shigella+and+bdello.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="278" data-original-width="666" height="133" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2Z5DA-c_hSQuhYzegg2yZM-BKf_oa99EMgLq53rZ56silG-KuM8cQJtMxwsJYQmiIjCM1_8DWJbURqkJNuhOM1ZngOSYsvmhIIvp10PCvvWRRryVJyhGZWkqO5qe5DVZ1aaVD0Tj3uLIF/s320/shigella+and+bdello.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Over time (left to right) when both Shigella and Dbellovibrio injected,<br /> the Bdellovibrio (red) attack and kill the Shigella (<a href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)31152-6">credit</a>)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
They group found that the use of Bdellovibrio (together with the white blood cell response it triggered) increased survival rates of the larvae from just over 20% to around 60%, which is very encouraging. <br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEQwFCG0UEDgG5DacsqbdNEVgklOzvA88fB0XFc-s7QrVXri_UExE1YLLhfFv6Y0msBXh5LRdHLQE6xfND9yREaDcAu2S-f9rVTti4fykO8OCxRonBabNZxxj5zsOF33EMd90Lw_bxXyA5/s1600/comparison.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="394" data-original-width="1271" height="99" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEQwFCG0UEDgG5DacsqbdNEVgklOzvA88fB0XFc-s7QrVXri_UExE1YLLhfFv6Y0msBXh5LRdHLQE6xfND9yREaDcAu2S-f9rVTti4fykO8OCxRonBabNZxxj5zsOF33EMd90Lw_bxXyA5/s320/comparison.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Comparison of injection Shigella vs Shigella and Bdellovibrio (<a href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)31152-6">credit</a>)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
The work has spurred further research, and attracted further funding - but of course, many questions remain to be answered :<br/><br/>
-The predator bacteria are not like antibiotics and are unlikely to work across the whole body. Instead, they are likely to be of most use in localised areas of infection or potential infection such as wounds.<br/><br/>
-It is not clear whether the technology will work in humans<br/><br/>
-Risks of allergies or inflammation when used in humans are a concern (although the fact that Dbellovibrio is already all around us suggest that the risk is low).<br/><br/>
-If people have had prior exposure to Bdellovibrio will it still work?<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_posknmL0rJ8hD-jWF-rUKosmk3VuuEvEa_BdCxpujD2MNLIkuO2bVJDpUxMMoXhzw0_f69JMA881Aw8J-CJ4pPc4vkZENWtUxxKhbAJmAh5PrUZKFsmeua8RgxElaxydAXnqEe1J964t/s1600/team+effort.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="365" data-original-width="500" height="233" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_posknmL0rJ8hD-jWF-rUKosmk3VuuEvEa_BdCxpujD2MNLIkuO2bVJDpUxMMoXhzw0_f69JMA881Aw8J-CJ4pPc4vkZENWtUxxKhbAJmAh5PrUZKFsmeua8RgxElaxydAXnqEe1J964t/s320/team+effort.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">It was a team effort</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
The next Cafe Science talk is on 12th March 2018 at the Vat and Fiddle Pub, Central Nottingham at 8.00pm<br/><br/>
<u><b>Image Sources</U></b><br/>
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zebrafish_Developmental_Stages.tiff">Zebrafish</a>,
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-34101493172164707782018-02-11T05:24:00.001-08:002018-02-11T05:34:04.681-08:00Talk : How Can Chemistry Save The World?<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
Returning for the first talk of the year, Cafe Sci persuade The Vat & Fiddle to open specially on the night of their staff party in order to welcome YouTube star <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyn_Poliakoff">Sir Martyn Poliakoff</a> to talk on How Can Chemistry Save The World?<br/><br/>
<a href="https://twitter.com/gavsquires">@Gav Squires</a> was there and has kindly written this guest post summarising the event, with some linkage added by NSB....<br/><br/>
Sir Poliakoff began by pointing out that the world needs chemicals - Earth could no support its <a href="https://www.unfpa.org/world-population-trends">current population</a> with natural materials alone. For example, we need fertilisers for food and synthetic materials for clothing. Since 1969, the population of the planet has doubled and will very soon hit 7.6 billion people. In 2012, the Royal Society produced a report entitled <a href="https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/people-planet/report/">The People & The Planet</a>, which came to the conclusion that most of us consume too much. That’s despite the fact that there are 1.6 billion “profoundly poor” people on the planet who deserve to consume more. The usually definition of profoundly poor is someone who can recall all of their possessions from memory. <br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmHp2fwyyrLD14L8EILPnlGIex9cB1OTFK-LbD0gTQpLsi9OtbvX6V3rOPM0VLxI-uyWpfIEc5d8VlHZLoyzqvsjnEAdGfiN1AWv0kk8ZltA9WE0TuUesboSxxyMmPjTW-CunG-rm3wSya/s1600/pop+trend.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="374" data-original-width="457" height="261" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmHp2fwyyrLD14L8EILPnlGIex9cB1OTFK-LbD0gTQpLsi9OtbvX6V3rOPM0VLxI-uyWpfIEc5d8VlHZLoyzqvsjnEAdGfiN1AWv0kk8ZltA9WE0TuUesboSxxyMmPjTW-CunG-rm3wSya/s320/pop+trend.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">UN population projections</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Today, more people in the world use a mobile phone than use a toothbrush. Smartphones contain 50 different chemical elements, out of 89 that are non-radioactive, and many of these are in short supply. The list includes tungsten, needed to make your phone vibrate and indium, used on the inside of the touch screen as it’s see-through and conducts electricity. You can’t get rid of an element without a nuclear explosion but it is possible to distribute it out so thinly that you can’t get it back together. This leads to the “Robin Hood” question - how can we provide for the poor without robbing the rich? Even the most altruistic aren’t going to accept a fall in their living standards. <br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5FHbbhrRjrUp3ZnVvGUyfXfZlgqIuXepv8yKtIdqieO5owod4obxiMLzNqa-iiY9-9HNVeSKXncYGn0tJ2_ICxXvE_oL40rEq3Y8XE4MXDiCx221BuY3OOd7LMQyxYe8ZStTb6OpR2zXi/s1600/220px-Testpad.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="168" data-original-width="220" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5FHbbhrRjrUp3ZnVvGUyfXfZlgqIuXepv8yKtIdqieO5owod4obxiMLzNqa-iiY9-9HNVeSKXncYGn0tJ2_ICxXvE_oL40rEq3Y8XE4MXDiCx221BuY3OOd7LMQyxYe8ZStTb6OpR2zXi/s1600/220px-Testpad.JPG" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Modern Circuit Board</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Martyn is involved in “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_chemistry">green chemistry</a>”, the idea of making chemicals more cleanly and with less waste. He tells a tale of visiting Ethiopia 15 years ago and pointing out to an audience at a lecture that a plastic bag was made from petrol. So a poor country like Ethiopia was buying petrol products from Abu Dhabi, one of the richest nations, and are then throwing the bags away. In the market where the bags came from, there was a surplus of sugar cane - if the bags could be made of sugar cane waste [i.e. as a "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioplastic">bioplastic</a>"] a then the petrol would no longer be required and cows could eat the waste. This is the idea of green chemistry. 15 years later and plastic bottles are now being <a href="https://uk.reuters.com/article/braskem-sugar-polymers/braskem-to-build-plant-in-test-using-sugar-to-make-plastic-bottles-idUKL1N1NN13Y">made from sugar</a> in Brazil. As a follow up when one of Martyn’s friends at Procter & Gamble heard his anecdote about the bags in Ethiopia, he made him a bag from sugar. This is possible because when humans eat too much, we get fat but when bacteria eat too much they produce plastic. Hence, feeding them on sugar can lead to plastic bags. <br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEejQU5wtkNEivBZwBowJLg63RmV5DrlxX-Vb9Pg0s4N9QGspvyDiVoF2kgR1jtmEXTthy3rnDikftOfbeBLB5mYPdXwkjHPZ8QTesMnbcFvp4w-Gt9XZK1giFSBvcNBXRQ8wmlL46W_HG/s1600/220px-Bottle_made_from_Cellulose_Acetate_Biograde.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="220" data-original-width="220" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEejQU5wtkNEivBZwBowJLg63RmV5DrlxX-Vb9Pg0s4N9QGspvyDiVoF2kgR1jtmEXTthy3rnDikftOfbeBLB5mYPdXwkjHPZ8QTesMnbcFvp4w-Gt9XZK1giFSBvcNBXRQ8wmlL46W_HG/s1600/220px-Bottle_made_from_Cellulose_Acetate_Biograde.JPG" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Containers made from Bioplastic</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Most of the chemicals that we use are organic and are based on carbon. These require a lot of solvents in order to make chemical reactions. So, one of the other aims of green chemistry is to reduce the amount of solvent required. For example when Viagra was first produced, it required 1,300 litres of solvent to produce 1 kilogram of product. Now, it requires just 6.5 litres. One of the ways of cutting down on solvent use is through <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_fluid">super-critical fluids</a>. If you heat liquid in a bottle then the density of the liquid goes down while the density of the gas increases. Eventually, the densities equalise and the line between liquid and gas disappears - the gas can now be used as a solvent in chemical reactions.<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJ5Srp1xlzM_HMW-tWaZ_-UMiqbfG7t1GphCdVBwFH2vv6D9ViKXiNl562-tU2c8PoGLbQfM1Qd6Hrb0Cnwo4OieZufRXF_gWAfKaS2-ACVpc6R06xkFVcNpqPCRbCFU7hodiqdZwNxDV4/s1600/290px-Carbon_dioxide_pressure-temperature_phase_diagram.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="274" data-original-width="290" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJ5Srp1xlzM_HMW-tWaZ_-UMiqbfG7t1GphCdVBwFH2vv6D9ViKXiNl562-tU2c8PoGLbQfM1Qd6Hrb0Cnwo4OieZufRXF_gWAfKaS2-ACVpc6R06xkFVcNpqPCRbCFU7hodiqdZwNxDV4/s1600/290px-Carbon_dioxide_pressure-temperature_phase_diagram.svg.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">CO2 phase diagram</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Back in 1912, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Luigi_Ciamician">Ciamician</a> had an article published in Science magazine entitled <a href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-1637055">The Photochemistry of the Future</a> and it is only now that the importance of his work is becoming apparent. We know that sunlight fades the colours of things such as book and curtains. Well, Ciamician was talking about the idea that coal is just fossilised sunlight and we all know that we will fun out of coal and oil long before we run out of sunlight. So, he postulated the idea of using radiant energy when looking for new methods of doing photo-chemical reactions.<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNRYHvI-8OI05ecSB5WMjdvmqlkYEHymQzTdfZPTJSLUHBFDoNP8LpXVXa7LW1bNHHL3QJGdjsre1aeJ8kcognX2OaKzUmU0x5sV3da4L2s9hUUTP9ZuA8Tnl2F4uTJxWvqpihUI44OLOd/s1600/220px-Ciamician-Giacomo_01a.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="321" data-original-width="220" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNRYHvI-8OI05ecSB5WMjdvmqlkYEHymQzTdfZPTJSLUHBFDoNP8LpXVXa7LW1bNHHL3QJGdjsre1aeJ8kcognX2OaKzUmU0x5sV3da4L2s9hUUTP9ZuA8Tnl2F4uTJxWvqpihUI44OLOd/s320/220px-Ciamician-Giacomo_01a.jpg" width="219" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Giacomo Luigi Ciamician</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
So, we're not quite there with green chemistry but it's encouraging the amount of work that's being put into it, especially <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/chemistry/research/centre-for-sustainable-chemistry.aspx">right here in Nottingham.</a><br/><br/>
Café Sci returns to The Vat & Fiddle on the 12th of February at 8:00pm when Liz Sockett will speak on Predatory Bacteria To Treat Infection. For more information, check out the Café Sci Meetup page:<br/>
https://www.meetup.com/nottingham-culture-cafe-sci/?_cookie-check=Kiib7d0FMSY4cKgw<br/><br/>
<u><b>Image Sources</u></b><br/>
<a href="https://www.unfpa.org/world-population-trends">Population</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Testpad.JPG">Circuit Board</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bottle_made_from_Cellulose_Acetate_Biograde.JPG">Bottle</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carbon_dioxide_pressure-temperature_phase_diagram.svg">Phase Diagram</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ciamician-Giacomo_01a.jpg">Ciamician</a><br/><br/>
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-9911301064900889302018-01-17T18:25:00.001-08:002019-06-29T06:52:07.112-07:0024hrs on an Anti-Vaccine Facebook page<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">NSB recently spent 24hrs on an anti-vaccine website and was saddened by what was being posted there - some examples later but first wanted to mention three lessons that NSB learnt:<br /><br />
i) Parents (overwhelmingly mothers) who visit these anti-vaxx facebook pages do not really stand a chance. The fear, uncertainty and doubt that is sown in parents minds by these sites is relentless. <br /><br />
ii) It is MUCH harder for parents to find the authoritiative data on vaccince effects than it is to find the anti-vaccine memes, websites and Facebook pages. Google is actively presenting fake and misleading data over accurate and authoritative data.<br /><br />
iii) Authoritative health sources are simply failing to provide counter information to that on anti-vaccine sites. <br /><br />
All of the posts below are from one single anti-vaccine Facebook page (and it's public sister page) and they are not the result of scrolling through the pages timeline, they are simply a small subset of what was posted over a 24hr period. <br /><br />
<table border="1" style="width: 100%;"><tbody>
<tr><td>Worried parent asks for positives and negatives re vaccination. Gets told "Vaccinations do not work. They do not work at all"<br />
In fact, vaccines clearly and very significantly reduce disease incidence.(<a href="https://medium.com/@visualvaccines/graphic-proof-that-vaccines-work-with-sources-61c199429c8c">link</a>)<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjj8kixVKAM8oKyR86JgbKMUpa-5LulV7eIonwbtgOCkQFNnJ41obwDloszl8atTZvcVD-JXN9srCOhaWVl52BkACGMpjwCXYRSkLCuEwjlANPmij-ze7Pb1U50vD8PaRFFuohu1XPmf88k/s1600/worried+parent+3.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="506" data-original-width="507" height="319" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjj8kixVKAM8oKyR86JgbKMUpa-5LulV7eIonwbtgOCkQFNnJ41obwDloszl8atTZvcVD-JXN9srCOhaWVl52BkACGMpjwCXYRSkLCuEwjlANPmij-ze7Pb1U50vD8PaRFFuohu1XPmf88k/s320/worried+parent+3.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<br /></td></tr>
<tr><td>Worried mum to be asks for advice regarding HPV. Gets told that "lemon balm" gets rid of HPV.<br />
In fact, so far as NSB can tell, there is no evidence that lemon balm eliminates HPV.<br />
<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-sWKrBq6qO01ZjNQJmbC8ZlI5HGLCRuqHxB7f-6tKyknK2m7gALnZpYISXfpwLEH3P3Ei6CH3yt8QnHJSFmmNI7ujkGR6BVVH7qJB5zyCCl51NCKHi37Xcsygs9xtAn6xseRO90BDnbO5/s1600/worried+parent+hpv+lemon+balm.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="410" data-original-width="508" height="258" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-sWKrBq6qO01ZjNQJmbC8ZlI5HGLCRuqHxB7f-6tKyknK2m7gALnZpYISXfpwLEH3P3Ei6CH3yt8QnHJSFmmNI7ujkGR6BVVH7qJB5zyCCl51NCKHi37Xcsygs9xtAn6xseRO90BDnbO5/s320/worried+parent+hpv+lemon+balm.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<tr><td>Poster treated unvaccinated childs whooping cough (pertussis)with "oatmeal baths, homeopathic remedies and herbs". Note also misleading claim that the vaccine increases the likelihood of getting pertussis. We will come to this later.<br />
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In fact, whooping cough is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertussis">horrific</a>. The coughing, which lasts <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/whooping-cough">several weeks</a>, is so severe the child's ribs can be broken.Tens of thousands of children die from whooping cough around the world every year."Oatmeal baths" are unlikely to cure the symptoms.<br />
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<tr><td>A poster claims that Vitamin C can treat Whooping Cough.<br />
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In fact, and in contrast to the repeated claims in the posted link, the pertussis vaccine is, <a href="https://medium.com/@visualvaccines/graphic-proof-that-vaccines-work-with-sources-61c199429c8c">very effective.</a> And even the article itself only claims (without evidence) to reduce the severity of the coughing, adding that Vitamin C "does not prevent or stop the disease".<br />
Even the link itself admits that Vitamin C will not reduce the length of the infection, and it presents not the slightest data in support of the claim that Vitamin C is helpful.<br />
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<tr><td>Poster provides link saying that "People say measles is a deadly disease, but it's not"<br />
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In fact, the World Health Organisation <a href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs286/en/">comments</a> that "In 2016, there were 89 780 measles deaths globally – marking the first year measles deaths have fallen below 100 000 per year. Measles vaccination resulted in a 84% drop in measles deaths between 2000 and 2016 worldwide.<br />
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<tr><td>Really struggle to understand the worldview of someone who has just seen doctors save their premature childs life through state of the art NTU care - and then call the exact same doctors "monsters" because they want to vaccinate the exact same child against diseases.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie5vyu5_AptBxs32h0wckR0JDeip9nJ6G_sM6OqsQ6p2MLUn3SAKeDKGfePLY7HXSpS0WNBXRWZTFKMOV1NjUhXAOIowFeCVCFRHRasluXd5iSQ_vt23qwGUL8KIQALmUqA5nnttl5Lxou/s1600/monsters1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="426" data-original-width="500" height="272" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie5vyu5_AptBxs32h0wckR0JDeip9nJ6G_sM6OqsQ6p2MLUn3SAKeDKGfePLY7HXSpS0WNBXRWZTFKMOV1NjUhXAOIowFeCVCFRHRasluXd5iSQ_vt23qwGUL8KIQALmUqA5nnttl5Lxou/s320/monsters1.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<tr><td>Again, apparently no problem with doctors providing life saving kidney transplant surgery (and the subsequent lifelong anti-rejection drugs) but refuse to believe the same doctors when it comes to vaccination. Bizarre.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIsUIBDEXjGzO6l3dPQzeVLxtK89H9OGwp-W__tNK_v-DCZlZXPHZLFd_8MCYb1wUYq_zT8IIjfGGv3JuGBhxwNX6rf1BlCuxxR6n_UCKgrAm7vDn6sEKq9DmZH94i8PzOqvMumy26-rVk/s1600/monsters2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="215" data-original-width="500" height="137" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIsUIBDEXjGzO6l3dPQzeVLxtK89H9OGwp-W__tNK_v-DCZlZXPHZLFd_8MCYb1wUYq_zT8IIjfGGv3JuGBhxwNX6rf1BlCuxxR6n_UCKgrAm7vDn6sEKq9DmZH94i8PzOqvMumy26-rVk/s320/monsters2.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<tr><td>Poster asked for advice for elderly relative regarding pneumococcal vaccine. Gets told flu shot is "killing elderly people at an alarming rate."<br />
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In fact, the NHS specifically<a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vaccinations/flu-vaccine-side-effects/?"> states</a> "You can't catch flu from the flu jab".Thousands die from the flu in the UK every year. The elderly are at particular risk.<br />
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<tr><td>Apparently, there is a whole story (without links or references) showing how polio is caused by metal poisoning.<br />
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In fact, the history of polio is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poliomyelitis">very interesting</a>, but not at all like the post claims.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeDx9BW3gr5exld8_z0amuxXnl3TYKCWQSVLGJ8N2VC0g9lyRo6C4OXynpoxtaC8hM7xnuo9P-9cPZ4Cp0OorI-aOT_RWnFI0N387TgEjbHt6bmKhUuFNXAyz-Jqd1ZhMvl_HJd-MsQnYo/s1600/polio1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="942" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeDx9BW3gr5exld8_z0amuxXnl3TYKCWQSVLGJ8N2VC0g9lyRo6C4OXynpoxtaC8hM7xnuo9P-9cPZ4Cp0OorI-aOT_RWnFI0N387TgEjbHt6bmKhUuFNXAyz-Jqd1ZhMvl_HJd-MsQnYo/s320/polio1.png" width="244" /></a></div>
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<tr><td>Similarly, this post implies that smallpox occurs independently of vaccination level<br />
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In fact, smallpox is a horrific condition, to the extent that NSB thinks it would be too disturbing to post an image of what it does to a person. Worldwide eradication of smallpox is one of medical sciences greatest achievements. The events in the posted timeline appear to be drawn from multiple continents and, in some cases, simply made up.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBIMmddWwW29GnauIRYf7Cv0IlWX6UEs4OQX9mdRcqlEhgVL1ws0MxJh_aT6Ymr7DTf0YjxllnnEP5ZeNFXsoMCD0ISESAj_HBW-WR14n4LhyphenhyphensHodlHS8At1zBtaHgG5SZw4F9Wu-UPlMC/s1600/smallpox2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1203" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBIMmddWwW29GnauIRYf7Cv0IlWX6UEs4OQX9mdRcqlEhgVL1ws0MxJh_aT6Ymr7DTf0YjxllnnEP5ZeNFXsoMCD0ISESAj_HBW-WR14n4LhyphenhyphensHodlHS8At1zBtaHgG5SZw4F9Wu-UPlMC/s320/smallpox2.png" width="191" /></a></div>
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<tr><td>Many posts like this one that talk about "<a href="https://luckylosing.com/2011/10/13/vaccine-shedding-time-up-for-another-vaccine-myth/">shedding</a>", where allegedly, vaccinated adults and children "shed" viruses to infect those around them. A number of posts suggest that the only reason we have some viruses is that they are "shed" from vaccinated people. There is no evidence for "shedding".<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieo6OLcpN1in1nbCLkXI3QF1mE63gBcSEhwKj8pHIBbSw_7odmCojseIuhKvoiqXHk3qlUM-WSo7Bl1CHxKnzeLIOYJDmp3b44JlkfOxEpqk5Ij3wzfNPKt58jwg0V6NLzdjSkUncRwkP-/s1600/prevent+risks1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="490" data-original-width="720" height="217" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieo6OLcpN1in1nbCLkXI3QF1mE63gBcSEhwKj8pHIBbSw_7odmCojseIuhKvoiqXHk3qlUM-WSo7Bl1CHxKnzeLIOYJDmp3b44JlkfOxEpqk5Ij3wzfNPKt58jwg0V6NLzdjSkUncRwkP-/s320/prevent+risks1.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<tr><td>Poster willfully ignores dangers of a number of viruses.<br />
The reality? Viruses are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_epidemics#20th_century">dangerous</a><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrsX8-JON8fcVnvWFIhlxL5fHN0gyqTTt05IHDEjK-Kh-oTMaK6UeoTOnWQQqvj5_iUguGM2D_EH6211zqn9Jd39CjAH0s008R_kqpQGRyyq-KhehusJUbsGmyI3zHNcnYjM0do18veFZK/s1600/preventable1b.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="463" data-original-width="718" height="206" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrsX8-JON8fcVnvWFIhlxL5fHN0gyqTTt05IHDEjK-Kh-oTMaK6UeoTOnWQQqvj5_iUguGM2D_EH6211zqn9Jd39CjAH0s008R_kqpQGRyyq-KhehusJUbsGmyI3zHNcnYjM0do18veFZK/s320/preventable1b.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<tr><td>This poster chooses to omit the <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/1104.aspx?CategoryID=54">fact</a> that if children with rubella pass it on to a pregant woman in the first 20 weeks of pregnancy, it can cause miscarriage, stillbirth or birth defects in unborn babies.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTSmsucuHxyHftDMxlrfoIsC_QFWupqauqB8P8HNgULgwyh8FkXc87MVDiuKHsPGqnL_bLFX4WzQARU_1vza3R1hxDn3dBKZQdo7tQII7le-TcIv_XwUvdcg_PiJyw2pzB3ynHEU5qqHhY/s1600/preventable2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="953" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTSmsucuHxyHftDMxlrfoIsC_QFWupqauqB8P8HNgULgwyh8FkXc87MVDiuKHsPGqnL_bLFX4WzQARU_1vza3R1hxDn3dBKZQdo7tQII7le-TcIv_XwUvdcg_PiJyw2pzB3ynHEU5qqHhY/s320/preventable2.png" width="241" /></a></div>
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See also this post.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuI59C3VBm_z5RtHCWJPlnjyi3HcU8QMe9cB-FS4yQt6H9B4VEi0oC2xwKzxEymj0UfQJ-UH5R7qe3m6Ct1DU4hQ-0S9NG89FockDi6Lw7ODg-Rs8t6ouvZ1pLfDYOa8mLJr3b2shOT58U/s1600/rubella1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="466" data-original-width="720" height="207" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuI59C3VBm_z5RtHCWJPlnjyi3HcU8QMe9cB-FS4yQt6H9B4VEi0oC2xwKzxEymj0UfQJ-UH5R7qe3m6Ct1DU4hQ-0S9NG89FockDi6Lw7ODg-Rs8t6ouvZ1pLfDYOa8mLJr3b2shOT58U/s320/rubella1.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<tr><td>Another recurring theme:<br />
Vaccinated children who get ill - any type of ill - are "vaccine injured".<br />
Unvaccinated children who get ill are "strengthening their immune system".<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1-9yAoYwW5Fl7UdwpbcFTN-h0fq1PgqY5CD1mgh8Q266ZDkHIqslWXWLzXs5KUFKRnlplC9at6skefHfx9O_L7fe25BOFIhSDR4lN9bwgEPQ7408klG_Y_q9pw_Ic6hAHg4lsKYdKKsoR/s1600/when+unvaxxed+ill+and+whooping+cough.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="377" data-original-width="503" height="239" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1-9yAoYwW5Fl7UdwpbcFTN-h0fq1PgqY5CD1mgh8Q266ZDkHIqslWXWLzXs5KUFKRnlplC9at6skefHfx9O_L7fe25BOFIhSDR4lN9bwgEPQ7408klG_Y_q9pw_Ic6hAHg4lsKYdKKsoR/s320/when+unvaxxed+ill+and+whooping+cough.JPG" width="320" /></a></div>
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<tr><td>It's not really surprising worried parents are getting biased information on this page - it's against the rules to post pro-vaccine information.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbSAQXSim-5fOWPe_pCTstWtj1RkiRxqbIHG6SDJuGAoyTUnn3vrAeE6znH3GTfAb9HzchR_5SHwqiGtEInqA7K-Z8afNKmcH0njtE6SJ1boer9QIhJ8MTkCg21gs4np7MUTzzdzQTdZQ9/s1600/rules+no+pro+vaxx.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="632" data-original-width="720" height="280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbSAQXSim-5fOWPe_pCTstWtj1RkiRxqbIHG6SDJuGAoyTUnn3vrAeE6znH3GTfAb9HzchR_5SHwqiGtEInqA7K-Z8afNKmcH0njtE6SJ1boer9QIhJ8MTkCg21gs4np7MUTzzdzQTdZQ9/s320/rules+no+pro+vaxx.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br /></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br /><br />
Oh yes, meant to talk about that whooping cough (pertussis) data!<br /><br />
Firstly, here is a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/pertussis/downloads/pertuss-surv-report-2014.pdf">link</a> to the page, and it does indeed show many more vaccinated children getting pertussis (2950 cases) than non vaccinated children getting the disease (556 cases)<br /><br />
So slam dunk, yes? Vaccination increases the risk of getting pertussis?<br /><br />
Well, not really. And to explain why, let's step back and take a hypothetical example...<br /><br />
Imaging there is a population of 1000 unvaccinated children and 1000 vaccinated children and that 1 in 10 get pertussis, say. <br /><br />
And let us presume that the vaccine is useless. It does nothing. Neither makes the child more nor less likely to get pertussis.<br /><br />
So what would we expect - we would expect 100 unvaccinated children to get pertussis and 100 vaccinated children to get pertussis. <br /><br />
And we can see that, as expected, it doesn't make any difference if you are vaccinated or not.<br /><br />
Now, and this is the important bit, let us imagine that only 60 children are unvaccinated and 2940 children are vaccinated (97%, about the level of pertussis vaccination in the general population)<br /><br />
Again assuming that the vaccination does not do anything, and that 1 in 10 children get pertussis, how many cases will be see?<br /><br />
Well, it will be 6 from the unvaccinated group and 294 from the vaccinated group.<br /><br />
OMG! Does this mean that vaccination increases the liklihood of getting pertussis?<br /><br />
As I am sure you can see, dear reader, no it does not. The high number of vaccinated cases is simply due to the fact that most of the population is vaccinated.<br /><br />
A couple of links:<br />
<a href="https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/toxic-myths-about-vaccines">https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/toxic-myths-about-vaccines</a><br />
<a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/straight-talk-about-vaccination">https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/straight-talk-about-vaccination</a><br />
<a href="https://medium.com/@visualvaccines/why-dr-suzanne-humphries-an-anti-vaccine-activist-is-lying-to-you-about-measles-ce446d0a7e0f">https://medium.com/@visualvaccines/why-dr-suzanne-humphries-an-anti-vaccine-activist-is-lying-to-you-about-measles-ce446d0a7e0f</a><br/><br/>
********************************************<br/><br/>
<u><b>Update May 2018</u></b><br/>
Fascinating stories of the three women who developed the whooping cough vaccine. :
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Eldering">Grace Eldering</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loney_Gordon">Loney Gorden</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_Kendrick">Pearl Kendrick</a>.<br/><br/>
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<u><b>Update Oct 2018</u></b><br/>
Flu related illnesses killed nearly 16,000 in England in 2017-2018, (<a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/740606/Surveillance_of_influenza_and_other_respiratory_viruses_in_the_UK_2017_to_2018.pdf?fbclid=IwAR23Xwr0HSAhTHdACPpZqWkVplnxcGtObdUiLqVzwXIoX9Azzdnh-5Rk3rg">source</a>).<br/><br/>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFISmC_Bp8N-bodESxz0Inih2otMTF0hZyzRZQie_loQZTNyeRilX4_lcRH6ABNRUaU5gWDon500JvZ9mxEx5J4KqGCvftxzc41UeOILF1JQ4LKSVnsQ16j9rB6FXbztyXufnljOoAQvrs/s1600/vax+oct+18.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="537" data-original-width="498" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFISmC_Bp8N-bodESxz0Inih2otMTF0hZyzRZQie_loQZTNyeRilX4_lcRH6ABNRUaU5gWDon500JvZ9mxEx5J4KqGCvftxzc41UeOILF1JQ4LKSVnsQ16j9rB6FXbztyXufnljOoAQvrs/s320/vax+oct+18.JPG" width="296" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnbaaOSUZOKT3O1_y0EJEOuqek3OTtPw0wAOGGAbSDvxfAgPWQbjWPQL63KrvMAM6UCgIpJ5NRT7BifxiXeZ1kKBZdJMnq8trTDwBixB6t9Eb6Ltf8Fbxh-NQUT82ApGP7GMwh_nXus8WS/s1600/Flu+28+oct.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="744" data-original-width="960" height="248" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnbaaOSUZOKT3O1_y0EJEOuqek3OTtPw0wAOGGAbSDvxfAgPWQbjWPQL63KrvMAM6UCgIpJ5NRT7BifxiXeZ1kKBZdJMnq8trTDwBixB6t9Eb6Ltf8Fbxh-NQUT82ApGP7GMwh_nXus8WS/s320/Flu+28+oct.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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********************************************<br/><br/>
<u><b>Update Nov 2018</u></b><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtJ38I0_7P8huCFbxMKjBxxWlwKoe6UMbRfcKkSDzPBBtdu9RrhXXEHTrhNSF476fXVYF7X7fToRgyOLMit1sP2WeMoqx2BVOembUtVjUZmOgCuii1lfYPzVjTyag12PQVLwJ22cuT-a40/s1600/crying+kids+vaxx.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="489" data-original-width="640" height="244" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtJ38I0_7P8huCFbxMKjBxxWlwKoe6UMbRfcKkSDzPBBtdu9RrhXXEHTrhNSF476fXVYF7X7fToRgyOLMit1sP2WeMoqx2BVOembUtVjUZmOgCuii1lfYPzVjTyag12PQVLwJ22cuT-a40/s320/crying+kids+vaxx.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Emotional manipulation by crying kids</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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********************************************<br/><br/>
<u><b>Update Nov 2018</u></b><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUX_JgIRowmuMEx0wiaEOuZzqtfw-t6DzgcyNGe0wSr2Id5ZbD7LAQaxF661B6lKwVVtMC6FfCN06t4fsCXFGBQw4bTX29ZjyOdN7Z3XyVNy9_ttTyZyflDnGP8JLhBOdDjVwrxBPRfGFM/s1600/peach+ingredients.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="960" data-original-width="618" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUX_JgIRowmuMEx0wiaEOuZzqtfw-t6DzgcyNGe0wSr2Id5ZbD7LAQaxF661B6lKwVVtMC6FfCN06t4fsCXFGBQw4bTX29ZjyOdN7Z3XyVNy9_ttTyZyflDnGP8JLhBOdDjVwrxBPRfGFM/s400/peach+ingredients.jpg" width="257" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The scary ingredients in a Peach</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzLdixycAYc808KaH7tWB71AHNw5EN2StDQ0MVFpjtMRn2F2k40MBGjBsGp1I6BRNIdSV_kV_Dxpx205RdRornXUpLFryQUSzRlwcJpWWUMupYAhR7j46b3fxXur5XNZfjOKW_fHFNZC7h/s1600/polio+causes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="855" data-original-width="803" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzLdixycAYc808KaH7tWB71AHNw5EN2StDQ0MVFpjtMRn2F2k40MBGjBsGp1I6BRNIdSV_kV_Dxpx205RdRornXUpLFryQUSzRlwcJpWWUMupYAhR7j46b3fxXur5XNZfjOKW_fHFNZC7h/s320/polio+causes.jpg" width="300" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The "causes" of Polio</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
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<u><b>Update Dec 2018</u></b><br/>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
"Do not trust Big Pharma. Do not trust the CDC. Do not trust the FDA. The are liars and deceivers.<br/>
Except when listing side effects on vaccine inserts. These are flawless and perfect."<br/><br/>
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Story about a "crunchy Mom" who changed from anti-vaxx to pro-vaxx when she say how science and medicine repeatedly saved the life of her unwell child.<br/><br/>
<i><blockquote>"Unfortunately, he contracted pertussis at one year old. He had been exposed to the disease. Because he spent so much time in the hospital as an infant, his vaccine schedule got delayed. Pertussis was horrifying. When he coughed, he vomited all over himself. His respirations were fast and inconsistent. His body temperature spiked over 104 degrees. There was nothing minor about whooping cough.
After his illness, I realized I was wrong about vaccines. Vaccines prevented children from suffering through diseases like pertussis, rubella, measles, and rotavirus. Children mortality greatly decreased with the introduction of vaccines into our society. My son’s disease could have been prevented with proper herd immunity. However, the anti-vaccine movement reduced the rates of immunized children. Herd immunity had been compromised."</blockquote></i><br/>
<a href="https://www.patheos.com/blogs/withoutacrystalball/2018/12/how-my-sons-life-threatening-illness-stopped-my-belief-in-pseudoscience2/">https://www.patheos.com/blogs/withoutacrystalball/2018/12/how-my-sons-life-threatening-illness-stopped-my-belief-in-pseudoscience2/</a>
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An example of very shaky logic (replace "vaccines" by "cars", "computers" or "Space travel" to see how it is a poor argument)<br/><br/>
<i><blockquote>
"I just decided to just google what the bible says about vaccines. There’s nothing in the bible that talks about vaccines. I just want you to think about that. So if God knew in the future that he was going to create these amazing things that were going to be the best scientific advancements, like oh, my God, they’re so great, why isn’t there anything, any inkling of talk about these things called vaccinations coming into being later to save people? If that was really God’s plan and they’re so amazing, then why isn’t it in there at all? Maybe there’s a chapter where they talk about something like an injection, like this health injection, right? Like, why didn’t God talk about that if he knew that it was going to come and save the world?”</blockquote></i><br/>
<a href="https://vaxopedia.org/tag/brittney-kara/">https://vaxopedia.org/tag/brittney-kara/</a><br/><br/>
********************************************<br/><br/>
<a id="1"></a>
Apr 2019<br/>
Hey @Tesco, hoping you can help me with a question! Noticed, to my surprise, that you still stock that public health menace of a publication "What Doctors Don't Tell You". I had a quick look inside and noticed that it advises ineffective "aromatherapy" treatments for serious diseases and pushes an anti-vaccine agenda and says that "Medicine isn't a science".My question to you, @Tesco, is how many children have to be hospitalised from vaccine preventable diseases before you ditch this dangerous magazine?<br/><br/>
Tesco response "Hello Ash, the items quoted are opinion pieces within the magazine and not intended to be interpretd as fact. WDDTY advise consulting your Doctor before following a course of treatment and carries a page of professionals who support their publications. If you have concerns over the content, I invite you to raise this directly with the publisher, or via IPSO Independent Press Standards Organsiation). Hope this helps."<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqvQTY0ffYpYJbgfmknXniwBFXILHX9A-WGK7UnNTOJC9U0nQWmh_KVpB4N7cYy3mNuPUm5k4GTWZWJkzBbx1URaQOy9FM5W0JxgPm4YAORiyzCxhtvV7zkp-l9MGhBIjLzy8BjGubXcAI/s1600/tesco0.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="806" data-original-width="650" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqvQTY0ffYpYJbgfmknXniwBFXILHX9A-WGK7UnNTOJC9U0nQWmh_KVpB4N7cYy3mNuPUm5k4GTWZWJkzBbx1URaQOy9FM5W0JxgPm4YAORiyzCxhtvV7zkp-l9MGhBIjLzy8BjGubXcAI/s320/tesco0.jpg" width="258" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">What Doctors Don't Tell You....</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMLS0MPiypOWMnRC45PqPA4Si9K0wFZtNd46Gg7eUulEElqw-gOEXhDqngA9Y7st8keFbSwug7gWaaLevz0uNQ4yDYsz4kwZUbIcBy4OHdujI7h8L5U3HwFT3Ip1dZVbUXg4IK0vM6VZ2M/s1600/tesco1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="639" data-original-width="851" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMLS0MPiypOWMnRC45PqPA4Si9K0wFZtNd46Gg7eUulEElqw-gOEXhDqngA9Y7st8keFbSwug7gWaaLevz0uNQ4yDYsz4kwZUbIcBy4OHdujI7h8L5U3HwFT3Ip1dZVbUXg4IK0vM6VZ2M/s320/tesco1.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">....say that "Medicine isn't a Science"</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzd8a0ZaGGPVtT8lCNwRF2-c51raIj63WLQnomeLS61V1AKw1JQ8CJt-c0TEZ74L2c1tvpyh4ERI-GQRGStdgSLRbg6uqDJJ0qX9OdJwBovLV6RxluR5JCJeneGHYgTNGU3Ue2pmMXp2Bi/s1600/tesco22.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="558" data-original-width="580" height="307" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzd8a0ZaGGPVtT8lCNwRF2-c51raIj63WLQnomeLS61V1AKw1JQ8CJt-c0TEZ74L2c1tvpyh4ERI-GQRGStdgSLRbg6uqDJJ0qX9OdJwBovLV6RxluR5JCJeneGHYgTNGU3Ue2pmMXp2Bi/s320/tesco22.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">..and that arompatherapists can treat Lyme disease</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmbWTdbN6cwgp_NlSHLqkRZHv1Yax2PU7GBZxxUQOLE_D-ZOCm08ImD_ngpiUqcYMF2y8QkxFZOWBWXawHm0YSZoSuQnf5QRZ3-TBXnoaSHZrVdDsdAAZD55EoObnGDyFqOu4Wt6j0Chh5/s1600/tesco2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="473" data-original-width="289" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmbWTdbN6cwgp_NlSHLqkRZHv1Yax2PU7GBZxxUQOLE_D-ZOCm08ImD_ngpiUqcYMF2y8QkxFZOWBWXawHm0YSZoSuQnf5QRZ3-TBXnoaSHZrVdDsdAAZD55EoObnGDyFqOu4Wt6j0Chh5/s320/tesco2.jpg" width="195" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tesco are chill with selling this kind of misinformation</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0Kkid49tcuzGvwfRij4KHoj7alw8ugIEBgFiA_kgd9PqE1IZQyI39YLEAHQ-G6OmtHky67FUtTJkT7g29gl6FsZ32hvTE3wxwDW8eaMBFQHCiY0lmVFFb7VbbwZbV4ohqMQEdlvdB-2HL/s1600/tesco3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="433" data-original-width="290" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0Kkid49tcuzGvwfRij4KHoj7alw8ugIEBgFiA_kgd9PqE1IZQyI39YLEAHQ-G6OmtHky67FUtTJkT7g29gl6FsZ32hvTE3wxwDW8eaMBFQHCiY0lmVFFb7VbbwZbV4ohqMQEdlvdB-2HL/s320/tesco3.jpg" width="214" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">And try to transfer the issue from one of THEIR responsibility to one of MY "concern"</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br/><br/>
</span></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-88766533370264552262017-11-26T13:23:00.003-08:002017-11-26T13:30:30.975-08:00Talk : "Who's Eating Who? Hominins and Carnivores in Human Evolution"<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
We have not always been the alpha predator on this planet - <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/archaeology/people/hannah.oregan">Dr Hannah O'Regan</a> give this month's public lecture on "Who's Eating Who? Hominins and Carnivores in Human Evolution"<br/><br/>
<a href="https://twitter.com/gavsquires">@Gav Squires</a> was there and has kindly written this guest post summarising the event, with some linkage added by NSB.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgK49cog-2NY-Q_N0Rr_OuPIBMZstpBOqtijSWBBT7t23GRISj2i2Rj2G9zDfAfl87A3tbUfRAyl_YmGZ4JLIcNZaXAVMiQcb535avVoW_HrVGK0RovcNHXmZOBfbabClcBHMQXBIFveCD0/s1600/Hannah+O%2527Regan+small.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="431" data-original-width="500" height="275" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgK49cog-2NY-Q_N0Rr_OuPIBMZstpBOqtijSWBBT7t23GRISj2i2Rj2G9zDfAfl87A3tbUfRAyl_YmGZ4JLIcNZaXAVMiQcb535avVoW_HrVGK0RovcNHXmZOBfbabClcBHMQXBIFveCD0/s320/Hannah+O%2527Regan+small.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hannah O'Regan</td></tr>
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<br />
To begin with, why carnivores?<br/>
Social carnivores could be a good proxy for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hominini">hominins</a> and their development. They have been in competition with hominins for resources such as food, water and shelter. They are primate predators.<br/><br/>
7 million years ago, the first hominin, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a>, evolved. 3.9million years ago, we had <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a>, the best known example of which is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_(Australopithecus)">Lucy</a> and 3.3million years ago, we have the earliest archaeology with evidence at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lomekwi">Lomekwian site</a> of the use of stones. Evidence has been discovered from 3.4million years ago of marks on bones, implying that humans had used tools to remove flesh, which they then presumably would have eaten. 2.8million years ago the genus homo made their first appearance and 2.6million years ago was the first use of stone tools. 1.5million years ago, we have <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acheulean">Acheulan tools</a>, hand axes and we have bipedal hominins wandering the landscape with tools.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_bEAo3mMdCAMMRYE3MjNo48af9KuatSldnGvUy4Z_ZxQhXV2wQ8dbJol0Oh75GSTggO7RxTRYQEoulmI1xeawCH3cbZCKXl0OdKx9O8rKPDvZQiBXP3fxX2nQqj5rbBz1DHg8iRQ_I2Np/s1600/150px-Sahelanthropus_tchadensis_reconstruction.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="225" data-original-width="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_bEAo3mMdCAMMRYE3MjNo48af9KuatSldnGvUy4Z_ZxQhXV2wQ8dbJol0Oh75GSTggO7RxTRYQEoulmI1xeawCH3cbZCKXl0OdKx9O8rKPDvZQiBXP3fxX2nQqj5rbBz1DHg8iRQ_I2Np/s1600/150px-Sahelanthropus_tchadensis_reconstruction.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Artistic interpretation of Sahelanthropus tchadensis<br/>by sculptor Élisabeth Daynès</td></tr>
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<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiI9Njne4j_a7LXo8Nq5Q9YJiWqRcc_inqFit_Lp6Dvs2zhAlztEtY5R8i1Pf-9g70W92YHwfLZdUb4JtI1DmAXHks7Zpv9tpfFKgH-QzJbL7cw8FCC6FNEfgfXdCZDY14xWdFLWdr5G07Z/s1600/Bifaz_cordiforme.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="115" data-original-width="220" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiI9Njne4j_a7LXo8Nq5Q9YJiWqRcc_inqFit_Lp6Dvs2zhAlztEtY5R8i1Pf-9g70W92YHwfLZdUb4JtI1DmAXHks7Zpv9tpfFKgH-QzJbL7cw8FCC6FNEfgfXdCZDY14xWdFLWdr5G07Z/s1600/Bifaz_cordiforme.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Acheulan tools</td></tr>
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<br />
Between 1 and 2million years ago there were a range of large carnivores in Africa including 6 types of hyena, canids including those the size of wolves and African dogs. There were also a number of felids that could take down a hominin including lions, cheetahs, leopards and sabre-tooth cats. Sabre-tooth cats were ambush predators with very powerful front-legs that they would use to wrestle prey into position so that it could use its teeth. The teeth were longer than they were wide, which made them susceptible to breaking. However, if they did break it would mean that the animal would be forced to scavenge and would not have lived for much longer afterwards. In Swartkrans in modern-day South Africa, evidence has even been found of human remains that have been predated by leopard.<br/><br/>
As well as large carnivores, there is also predation by birds and things such as eagles will hunt primates - there is plenty of evidence in the form of primate bones beneath the nests of Crowned Eagles. The Taung child, the first ever fossil published of a hominin from Africa was discovered in 1924, was 3-4 years old when it died and the only hominin fossil ever found in Taung in South Africa. It has similar orbital damage to primates eaten by eagles and it appears that there was no population at Taung and the child was carried there by an eagle.<br/><br/>
Evidence has also been found of crocodiles predating hominins from 1.8million years ago. Another example from down the same river has crocodile teeth marks on its foot and has also had its leg bitten off by a leopard - not a great day!<br/><br/>
The Homotherium was one of the sabre-toothed cats that lived in Africa and Europe that seem to have died out in Europe around 28,000 years ago. In Schöningen in Germany, evidence of humans using spears 300,000 years ago has been found - the humans were mainly preying on horses at the time. There is also evidence that these humans were using the bones of Homotherium as hammers in order to make stone tools.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFoxFa-2M4GK0bAG435MJgCEXGJJWy-resbnzd1QUhbrZS3qVrMKFqQ5gLsNulm4SvKz_r6tpUT8u9AGZtQs6ZFxEtCbo_ZKQh84x4gsr7R_8YbBERES_aDKrc87dSFuqCs3iZDEjT_sBh/s1600/220px-Homotherium_serum.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="139" data-original-width="220" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFoxFa-2M4GK0bAG435MJgCEXGJJWy-resbnzd1QUhbrZS3qVrMKFqQ5gLsNulm4SvKz_r6tpUT8u9AGZtQs6ZFxEtCbo_ZKQh84x4gsr7R_8YbBERES_aDKrc87dSFuqCs3iZDEjT_sBh/s1600/220px-Homotherium_serum.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Artists impression of Homotherum</td></tr>
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<br />
How can we tell the difference between predation and scavenging? It's actually very difficult as teeth will make the same marks in both cases. Looking at some Neanderthal bones, there are some fox bite marks on the hands that are clearly scavenging but there are also bite marks on the skull from a larger animal, which could be either.<br/><br/>
While it is extinct in the UK these days, the brown bear in Europe's largest carnivore. In Ireland, a bear patella has been found showing evidence of marks from stone tools where the patella tendon has been cut. This is the first evidence of humans living in Ireland but we still don't know what they would have been using the patella for once it was removed. More recently the Romans brought bears to the country and in the 16th century there were a number of bear baiting arenas in London. By the 18th century bear shaped ceramic were being made in Nottingham, depicting bears holding dogs and even in the early 20th century, Italians were bringing over dancing bear cubs for the summer season.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjT2sNyayW3W561UXrLEs1ccr9xub5M5-_OJDsHUN2ufALup0Q7UfvVakLD9LqOhIz5mYew3NgjVWkQl3UqngVmuajnxS23CBS6eZOHBrqWKzYV92ClOEAH6CZXua954CeQH1W59aIVfkZ/s1600/European_Brown_Bear.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="220" data-original-width="220" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjT2sNyayW3W561UXrLEs1ccr9xub5M5-_OJDsHUN2ufALup0Q7UfvVakLD9LqOhIz5mYew3NgjVWkQl3UqngVmuajnxS23CBS6eZOHBrqWKzYV92ClOEAH6CZXua954CeQH1W59aIVfkZ/s1600/European_Brown_Bear.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">European Brown Bear</td></tr>
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<br />
These days we are the apex predator and this isn't necessarily a good thing for the other carnivores, for example the African lion population has dropped by 42% in the last two years. Recently a lynx that had escaped from a zoo was shot in Wales, despite the fact that there have never been any recorded attacks on humans by lynxes. There have been talks over the last few years about the possibility of rewilding species such lynx into the UK, could that still be an option?<br/><br/>
We have interacted with and evolved alongside carnivores for millions of years and even now, without adaptations such as fire, weapons and defensive protection, we are vulnerable to predators. However, overall, carnivores are on the back foot against the spread of homo sapiens.<br/><br/>
The Public Lecture Series returns on the 7th of December at the University of Nottingham at 6:00pm where Dr Craig Sturrock will talk on 3D X-Ray Vision: Measuring the Hidden Structure of Biomaterials Using X-Ray Computed Technology. For more information, check out the PLS website: <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/outreach/science-public-lectures.aspx">https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/outreach/science-public-lectures.aspx</a><br/><br/>
<U><B>Image Sources</u></b><br/>
<a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/bd/Sahelanthropus_tchadensis_reconstruction.jpg/150px-Sahelanthropus_tchadensis_reconstruction.jpg">Sahelanthropus</a>, <a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Bifaz_cordiforme.jpg/220px-Bifaz_cordiforme.jpg">Cordiforme</a>, <a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Homotherium_serum.jpg/220px-Homotherium_serum.jpg">Homotherium</a>, <a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/European_Brown_Bear.jpg/220px-European_Brown_Bear.jpg">Bear</a><br/><br/>
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-66494317013557123012017-11-25T20:51:00.003-08:002017-11-25T21:17:51.239-08:00Talk - The Skyscraper - From mid-20th Century to 2030<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
For November's Café Sci, <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/engineering/departments/abe/people/david.nicholson-cole">David Nicholson-Cole</a> from the University of Nottingham comes to talk on "The Skyscraper - From mid-20th Century to 2030".<br/><br/>
<a href="https://twitter.com/gavsquires">@Gav Squires</a> was there and has kindly written this guest post summarising the event, with some linkage added by NSB.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTkgki2RYzpYhegJa2o2JQcbA2f0dTNtn3kp5J7YSFaUFkjSQycXEUlyFZIDDNG6RKL8yM0abBGnZ4naZ14PUCTaqa7o6VstK5jL-IujBd_9C1fU7_A3GLW_S1-fKgeWG8fZVByYECjEK6/s1600/David+Nicholson-Cole.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="375" data-original-width="500" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTkgki2RYzpYhegJa2o2JQcbA2f0dTNtn3kp5J7YSFaUFkjSQycXEUlyFZIDDNG6RKL8yM0abBGnZ4naZ14PUCTaqa7o6VstK5jL-IujBd_9C1fU7_A3GLW_S1-fKgeWG8fZVByYECjEK6/s320/David+Nicholson-Cole.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">David Nicholson-Cole</td></tr>
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<br />
There were 4,500 years between the building of the pyramids in Egypt and Lincoln Cathedral, which was then the tallest building the world for 238 years[1311–1549, when the large central spire collapsed]. Now, the gap between the record being broken is coming down all the time and a new world's tallest building is crowned around every five years. Originally tall buildings were built to display the concepts of eternity, wealth and destiny and very little has changed.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTS4LyBElJR7hPymIISpJqJeFO6fh4EOq0a8516ED4UOhgZDARYrYj0ZY7Q7YjTI384Nh0vt0-bvStWr9NPm9zmeCfAl8I7kxUtxOdxVGYtefGK4yBw8F64gQq-3yyC2R-HDJGhApf85gI/s1600/527px-Model_with_Spires%252C_Lincoln_Cathedral_-_black_background.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="527" height="291" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTS4LyBElJR7hPymIISpJqJeFO6fh4EOq0a8516ED4UOhgZDARYrYj0ZY7Q7YjTI384Nh0vt0-bvStWr9NPm9zmeCfAl8I7kxUtxOdxVGYtefGK4yBw8F64gQq-3yyC2R-HDJGhApf85gI/s320/527px-Model_with_Spires%252C_Lincoln_Cathedral_-_black_background.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Model of Lincoln Cathedral (the large central spire collapsed in 1549) </td></tr>
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<br />
But what is a tall building? These days, it needs to be over 100 metres tall and must be occupied. So, the Eiffel Tower doesn't count. Usually, wide buildings aren't considered to be tall even if they are actually pretty tall, for example Queen's Medical Centre doesn't feel like a tall building but it's 10 storeys high. There really should only be one iconic tall building per city. While tall buildings should have utility, the top 300 metres of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Khalifa">Burj Khalifa</a>, the tallest building in the world today, aren't used - they are just there for the look.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3OmUObG3O37ilOFGK3AKn5ikyX5np4BzyoK2zOwKi-X20kAVEDwUXzooJLt-kgPG1r7f5X0XPt49tmyPsjgGaoe6hQhA_EAAtraa1pLBncUqHloHa3-0xQMVDuI00dXvvB5fCiBhVOCVY/s1600/343px-Burj_Khalifa.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="343" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3OmUObG3O37ilOFGK3AKn5ikyX5np4BzyoK2zOwKi-X20kAVEDwUXzooJLt-kgPG1r7f5X0XPt49tmyPsjgGaoe6hQhA_EAAtraa1pLBncUqHloHa3-0xQMVDuI00dXvvB5fCiBhVOCVY/s320/343px-Burj_Khalifa.jpg" width="182" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Burj Khalifa, 2010</td></tr>
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<br />
In 2010, half of the world's population were living in cities and urbanisation is increasing at the rate of 200,000 people per day - a city the size of Manchester has to be built every week just to keep up. By 2030, it will be 60 of the world's population and by 2050, a massive 70% of people will live in cities. Will we keep up? If we do, it will probably be due to more tall buildings.<br/><br/>
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraper">Skyscrapers</a> originally started in America and apart from the occasional iconic one here and there, they never really caught on in Europe. Now, most expansion is happening in East Asia and 10 out of the 14 cities with the most tall buildings can be found in East Asia - Hong Kong alone has 2,354 buildings over 100 metres tall. Now, the average height for a super-tall building is 350 metres. Originally, tall buildings would all be used for office space as only offices could afford to build tall. They have since had to evolve into multi-use buildings as that is the only thing that makes economic sense. In the Middle East and China, they prefer building with stone rather than steel but here in the UK, steel is used for tall buildings. Cities with tall buildings and good transport links are the most energy efficient.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidQoIAHkZTptufysM7Rh7kaAaP23dFUg2GW5DHEsJeXyNFtlQCMX7KCxqV7bEeZUjdrkbSEIEe7w2ITYBzxXbGdciSCyZhjHVY4NyfAmsqYG3TPEvbVMK2MehvtExzdI5lRU-3YvFLwTei/s1600/Hong_Kong_Night_Skyline+big.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="305" data-original-width="500" height="195" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidQoIAHkZTptufysM7Rh7kaAaP23dFUg2GW5DHEsJeXyNFtlQCMX7KCxqV7bEeZUjdrkbSEIEe7w2ITYBzxXbGdciSCyZhjHVY4NyfAmsqYG3TPEvbVMK2MehvtExzdI5lRU-3YvFLwTei/s320/Hong_Kong_Night_Skyline+big.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tall buildings in Hong Kong</td></tr>
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<br />
A proposal for building on the banks of the river Hudson in New York saw the land valued at $110,000 per square metre. This is why going tall becomes so popular - to make it pay you have to go tall and have to go mixed-use. The site in New York was 1,000 square metres in size so it would have cost $110,000,000 just for the land. The reason that the land is so expensive is that places like New York and London have such massive demand for housing that it pushes the prices up and means that you have to build tall.<br/><br/>
The two key inventions that enabled tall buildings to be constructed were the elevator (the first safety elevator was built in 1852) and the steel frame (introduced in the mid-19th century). There were other inventions during the so-called "gilded age" of America between 1869 and 1901 that were crucial to the development of tall buildings:<br/><br/>
AC electricity<br/>
Telephone<br/>
Typewriter<br/>
Electric light<br/>
Discovery of mineral oil<br/>
Railway<br/>
Universal post<br/>
Electric tram<br/>
Elevated railway<br/>
Sprinklers<br/><br/>
Sprinklers especially were important as before them, buildings could not be made taller than 75 feet high following the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Chicago_Fire">great fire of Chicago</a>, which was actually bigger than the fire of London.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjW_Op1A6RZUFNYm_hGtKodUYAdyrmpfskHEB8-zItZETtlaNkMAvz9s6mEAm3g4lEuoQWAhHSKwROg3WV1FyefHM76vuLyFRPVlmtyPzHEvDbzxNu8aGPTZB8HU9UUIqAOBy5vYlEWnu9I/s1600/Chicago-fire2.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="421" data-original-width="432" height="311" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjW_Op1A6RZUFNYm_hGtKodUYAdyrmpfskHEB8-zItZETtlaNkMAvz9s6mEAm3g4lEuoQWAhHSKwROg3WV1FyefHM76vuLyFRPVlmtyPzHEvDbzxNu8aGPTZB8HU9UUIqAOBy5vYlEWnu9I/s320/Chicago-fire2.jpeg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Aftermath of the Great Fire of Chicago, 1871</td></tr>
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<br />
In 1884, the first high-rise residential building was constructed - the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dakota">Dakota building</a> in New York (the building that John Lennon was shot and killed outside) and in 1885 the 10-storey <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Insurance_Building">Home Insurance building</a> opened in Chicago. These first generation tall buildings were built using steel - the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monadnock_Building">Monadnock building</a>, also in Chicago, was originally built using brick but was too heavy and started to sink into the Chicago mud. In the 1920s, the second generation of tall buildings saw form follow finance.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0JsJb96lbP5I14xwnoJt1Y3jFT9DEsB8lCSYp0fpU2Ghs2ObYYnCQFa7maYISHzmKNkg3Oiz9km6FzqcMmbfJHSEXTY4b_Tr3rS0K4tYl4an0bDbnaiXHm4jSrgWur-2eS7t5REbBwGC0/s1600/The_Dakota_1890b.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="187" data-original-width="260" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0JsJb96lbP5I14xwnoJt1Y3jFT9DEsB8lCSYp0fpU2Ghs2ObYYnCQFa7maYISHzmKNkg3Oiz9km6FzqcMmbfJHSEXTY4b_Tr3rS0K4tYl4an0bDbnaiXHm4jSrgWur-2eS7t5REbBwGC0/s1600/The_Dakota_1890b.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Dakota Building, c.1890 - at the time,<br/> this area of Manhattan was sparsely developed, and remote <br//>from the core of the city's population
</td></tr>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZ27KFZpXwvLvdeUMPjH0FgFUDDjhAmqYypeBSnBu0Nh8r1LRJJxvR9EK2BAZGg4luLlHTLnPjiKM80IWMywMERXVFK4sJXlvd1_9wX7Uuf8BEeSmeFec5RpWigBXDMLZ-l7rNhZwnjkQf/s1600/220px-Home_Insurance_Building.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="338" data-original-width="220" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZ27KFZpXwvLvdeUMPjH0FgFUDDjhAmqYypeBSnBu0Nh8r1LRJJxvR9EK2BAZGg4luLlHTLnPjiKM80IWMywMERXVFK4sJXlvd1_9wX7Uuf8BEeSmeFec5RpWigBXDMLZ-l7rNhZwnjkQf/s320/220px-Home_Insurance_Building.JPG" width="208" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Home insurance Building</td></tr>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjn4jSlUmCxTguPFbvoBCbTjgTAmRXtt2arFSL4eLC-jN6zDKkXCfS5mOrXRGNk-CJY3zV-L0OUMTy30-kzZ2MNX0JhBVvOrXX10Mh9tcBeVL1RUf5zVhAjVP_aeYU79wZerkDZa45e8hxM/s1600/220px-Monadnock.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="338" data-original-width="220" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjn4jSlUmCxTguPFbvoBCbTjgTAmRXtt2arFSL4eLC-jN6zDKkXCfS5mOrXRGNk-CJY3zV-L0OUMTy30-kzZ2MNX0JhBVvOrXX10Mh9tcBeVL1RUf5zVhAjVP_aeYU79wZerkDZa45e8hxM/s320/220px-Monadnock.jpg" width="208" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Monadock Building</td></tr>
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<br />
Between the 1950s and the 1980s, the third generation [also known as the "<a href="http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/architecture/international-style.htm">International Style</a>"] saw dark glass boxes becoming popular. Post the 1970s energy crisis, generation four was still largely glass boxes but they were becoming more efficient. We are now firmly in the 5th generation where energy efficiency and sustainability are the keys to design. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosco_Verticale">Bosco Verticale</a>, in Milan, is a green building, with facades that contain living plants and hints the way towards the next generation of tall buildings.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOn-js2BnwruNDR85IM_g9T8uWcicmvT3STx2kbgK8a2PRTM9PYQdXNaQ5WSWv-nVSMMByU50D3z1ihF3yc-a-2moZd4Upk2MajielFCPKsT_xt_v-WaB_bU9U-uPWwtw4ZtHaFqVCSgbk/s1600/200px-NewYorkSeagram_04.30.2008.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="307" data-original-width="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOn-js2BnwruNDR85IM_g9T8uWcicmvT3STx2kbgK8a2PRTM9PYQdXNaQ5WSWv-nVSMMByU50D3z1ihF3yc-a-2moZd4Upk2MajielFCPKsT_xt_v-WaB_bU9U-uPWwtw4ZtHaFqVCSgbk/s1600/200px-NewYorkSeagram_04.30.2008.JPG" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Seagram Building</td></tr>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhe3yrLKnv9G63UyGOmmhDFWODOJdjMbIMHACZKA53uUR_hUn4qLLXXHH9WcZBRcLkK5cevPQwCW55VSUihkZnngBfzMd6vMvvZKrVCjsOruwZYCryLFr4okULS0r1FExgmTqjb2MAFQHvg/s1600/320px-Bosco_verticale%252C_Milan%252C_Italy_%2528Unsplash_bIx15C7AnNg%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="213" data-original-width="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhe3yrLKnv9G63UyGOmmhDFWODOJdjMbIMHACZKA53uUR_hUn4qLLXXHH9WcZBRcLkK5cevPQwCW55VSUihkZnngBfzMd6vMvvZKrVCjsOruwZYCryLFr4okULS0r1FExgmTqjb2MAFQHvg/s1600/320px-Bosco_verticale%252C_Milan%252C_Italy_%2528Unsplash_bIx15C7AnNg%2529.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Boscoe Building</td></tr>
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<br />
In terms of maximum height, the only limiting factor is really the number of lifts - the higher that you go, the more people will be using the building and so the more lifts you need. Right now, a 1 kilometre tall building is being constructed in Jeddah in Saudi Arabia. While the future will bring new tall buildings, what will happen to the old ones as they become obsolete, which generally happens between 30 and 40 years after they are built. Only three buildings taller than 160 metres have ever been <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-20535821">demolished</a>, they have mainly been refurbished.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipz7Xu3ueTvvt41TyHRv_cM-RKNoi7am6kk0RBKMacqMV56tWVhyphenhyphenMu9utWjdf-tYSzpGrIZqisIQTcfuR5qdFSDoyxDjEU7OiHRgU2_f-6Q_JXKxVV7uiT4iBmxEZTxLdwkkGs6qegq_og/s1600/Kingdom_Tower%252C_Jeddah%252C_render.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="375" data-original-width="266" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipz7Xu3ueTvvt41TyHRv_cM-RKNoi7am6kk0RBKMacqMV56tWVhyphenhyphenMu9utWjdf-tYSzpGrIZqisIQTcfuR5qdFSDoyxDjEU7OiHRgU2_f-6Q_JXKxVV7uiT4iBmxEZTxLdwkkGs6qegq_og/s320/Kingdom_Tower%252C_Jeddah%252C_render.jpg" width="226" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Jeddah Tower (under construction as of 2017)</td></tr>
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<br />
Café Sci returns to the Vat & Fiddle on the 11th of December at 8:00pm where Lucy Donaldson will talk about "Bitter Now But Better Later?" For more information, visit the Café Sci MeetUp page <a href="https://www.meetup.com/nottingham-culture-cafe-sci/">https://www.meetup.com/nottingham-culture-cafe-sci/</a><br/><br/>
<u><b>Image Sources</u></b><br/>
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Model_with_Spires,_Lincoln_Cathedral_-_black_background.jpg">Lincoln Cathedral</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burj_Khalifa.jpg">Burj Al Khalifa</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hong_Kong_Night_Skyline.jpg">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chicago-fire2.jpeg">Chicago Fire</a>,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Dakota_1890b.jpg"> Dakota Bldg</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Home_Insurance_Building.JPG">Home Insurance Bldg</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monadnock.jpg">Monadock Bldg</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NewYorkSeagram_04.30.2008.JPG">Seagram Bldg</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bosco_verticale,_Milan,_Italy_(Unsplash_bIx15C7AnNg).jpg">Bosco Verticale</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kingdom_Tower,_Jeddah,_render.jpg">Jeddah Tower</a><br/><br/>
<u><b>Related Links</u></b><br/>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-short-history-of-tall-buildings-the-making-of-the-modern-skyscraper-56850">Article </a>by David Nicholson-Cole
</span></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-51431402201590486772017-11-11T14:54:00.002-08:002017-11-11T14:54:34.569-08:00Slinky Science 'Speriment<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;"><br />
BFTF is a big fan of science. All the wonders of the modern age, all out comforts, our medicines, our transportation, our communications. . . are built on the scientific endeavours of the last few hundred years.<br />
<br />
Maybe it's just me, but whenever I use the word "scientific" I feel a little like Yul Brenner in "The King and I" - not in a good way!<br />
<br />
Unfortunately, it can be hard to easily demonstrate the key elements of scientific enquiry in a domestic setting - or so BFTF thought until it found itself helping a pint sized relation with a small science project on springs.<br />
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We taped up the top half of a slinky spring, and taped some paper over the bottom of the slinky to act as a base where we could add weights.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnegSXuCPKCTeYXJUgnHyA9YVpGhfptLzkESSRiNtomthVOFuLRVvVEEaO4x0-voX21yu_G7OGwthX6NJx8BaHHhuveD8FD3sdgtEOULXm_zMvdFFato3rSpqwDbmwSJUogfjH9Q5q_7rl/s1600/Slinky+Spring.jpg" imageanchor="1" style=""><img border="0" height="320" width="147" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnegSXuCPKCTeYXJUgnHyA9YVpGhfptLzkESSRiNtomthVOFuLRVvVEEaO4x0-voX21yu_G7OGwthX6NJx8BaHHhuveD8FD3sdgtEOULXm_zMvdFFato3rSpqwDbmwSJUogfjH9Q5q_7rl/s320/Slinky+Spring.jpg"></a></div><br />
<br />
<br />
We then measured the length of the slinky (measuring from the bottom of the taped section to the paper base) which was 14cm. <br />
<br />
Next, we progressively added pound coins to the paper base, measuring the length of the spring each time (24, 34, 44cm with 1,2,3 coins respectively)<br />
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Once we got to three coins we plotted the data on a graph and drew a "best fit" line thought the points. <br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcLej3F6yue9y3ArRyC0Nw8QhjAQ3X7hHQmBgFOcCb1nvJKQ9WxwJtNa0_O1MZ5u8f0rpZStKX2xrNk6BospTp7I4hy-bUZ_wy5CR63IrH6U3IVm36U6T4zxcKaHPYEKy-scDB8Ax2DBGD/s1600/Graph.PNG" imageanchor="1" style=""><img border="0" height="320" width="227" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcLej3F6yue9y3ArRyC0Nw8QhjAQ3X7hHQmBgFOcCb1nvJKQ9WxwJtNa0_O1MZ5u8f0rpZStKX2xrNk6BospTp7I4hy-bUZ_wy5CR63IrH6U3IVm36U6T4zxcKaHPYEKy-scDB8Ax2DBGD/s320/Graph.PNG"></a></div><br />
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<br />
We then - get this - predicted what the extension would be for 4 coins and for 5 coins and checked to see what actually happened.<br />
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Well, my gob was truly smacked when it turned out that our prediction for the length of the slinky with 4 pound coins was absolutely spot on and the prediction for the length with 5 pound coins was accurate to within 1cm !!!. <br />
<br />
We had performed an experiment, plotted the data, made a prediction for what would happen next, tested our prediction and found that it was quite accurate. It doesn't get any better than this!<br />
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So, gentle reader, there you go. A science experiment that ticks all the boxes and can easily be performed at home (no bunsun burner required!).<br />
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If you know of any easy science experiments, particularly any that allow you to make predictions about future behaviour, why not describe them in the comments section below.</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-15770390920579027262017-11-11T14:37:00.001-08:002017-11-11T14:37:07.767-08:00The (counter-intuitive) Monty Hall Problem<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Hall_problem"></a><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;"> There are some things in life that are really counter-intuitive. <br />
<br />
We accept many of these because the evidence is right there before our eyes and we are used to them (e.g. a box in my front room that displays a moving image received through thin air? You gotta be kidding me right?) <br />
<br />
But some, less common, phenomena still have the capability to confuse us. A good example of this is the "Monty Hall Problem", which is often stated as : <br />
<br />
<blockquote><b><br />
Suppose you're on a game show, and you're given the choice of three doors: Behind one door is a car; behind the others, goats. You pick a door, say No. 1 [but the door is not opened], and the host, who knows what's behind the doors, opens another door [that does not have the car behind it], say No. 3, which has a goat. He then says to you, "Do you want to pick door No. 2?" Is it to your advantage to switch your choice?</blockquote></b><br />
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Intuitively, one feels that switching door should not make any difference - you have a 50:50 change either way.<br />
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But, weirdly, this is not the case - in reality, you have a much higher chance of getting the car if you change doors.<br />
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I know, I know, it seems to go against common sense, and indeed when this conundrum was published in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parade_(magazine)">Parade</a> magazine, some 10,000 readers, including almost 1,000 with PhD's wrote in to complain that the article was wrong and that changing doors did not make any difference.<br />
<br />
With the problem being so simple, NSB decided to simply knock up an excel spreadsheet and see what happens. The geeky stuff is at the bottom of the post, but the take-home-message is that running the problem 100 times gives the following results :<br />
<br />
<b>Never switch door : Win 35% of the games<br />
Always Switch door : Win 65% of the games<br />
Toss a coin as to whether to switch or not : Win 55% of the games</b><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGRf1wZCGfUFBP6Otj0LEsD5IKn0zULyNuBcZK8ANX80s5G4X70Qg9dXB_8NwYSfGRi1gcZ1JLV6S2M-3eTGHO8s6pOakkoZLzs5M88gE4YHrLJTNulgWt7NGhATJRD_kGDWlvJJslycjs/s1600/Capture.GIF" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left:1em; margin-right:1em"><img border="0" height="209" width="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGRf1wZCGfUFBP6Otj0LEsD5IKn0zULyNuBcZK8ANX80s5G4X70Qg9dXB_8NwYSfGRi1gcZ1JLV6S2M-3eTGHO8s6pOakkoZLzs5M88gE4YHrLJTNulgWt7NGhATJRD_kGDWlvJJslycjs/s320/Capture.GIF"></a></div><br />
Crikey, switching really does improve your chances of winning! How spooky!<br />
<br />
Just goes to show how the human mind can be tricked. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Hall_problem">Wikipedia</a> article on the Monty Hall Problem is surprisingly long and discusses many of the psychological issues related to how people perceive the problem.<br />
<br />
Here comes the Geek bit (from a random line of the spreadsheet, line 3 in this case) :<br />
<br />
Column B : Randomly choose which door the prize is behind<br />
Excel Formula: =RANDBETWEEN(1,3)<br />
<br />
Column C : Contestant randomly pick a door<br />
Excel Formula: =RANDBETWEEN(1,3)<br />
<br />
Column D : Outcome if contestant sticks (win=1)<br />
Excel Formula: =IF(C3=B3,1,0)<br />
<br />
Column E : Outcome if contestant switches sticks (win=1)<br />
Excel Formula: =IF(D3=1,0,1)<br />
<br />
Column F : Toss to switch (stay=1)<br />
Excel Formula: =RANDBETWEEN(1,2)<br />
<br />
Column G : Outcome based on Toss in Column F (win=1)<br />
Excel Formula: =IF(F3=1,E3,D3)<br />
<br />
Copy the above onto as many lines as you want and then total up the wins from the different strategies.<br />
</span><br />
</div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-38111278948327376812017-11-11T13:02:00.002-08:002017-11-11T13:02:39.527-08:00Taxonomy, Type Specimens and Art<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
This article first written in 2012, but as relevant today as it was then....<br>
A <a href="http://blogs.nottingham.ac.uk/makingsciencepublic/2012/11/23/making-plants-science-the-role-of-herbaria-and-images-in-botany/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=making-plants-science-the-role-of-herbaria-and-images-in-botany">fascinating article</a> in the UoN "Making Science Public" blog discusses the role of samples in botany. Written by <a href="http://www.stjohns.digication.com/mcf">Maura C. Flannery</a>, Professor of Biology at St. John’s University, NY, the article was a genuine revelation for a non-specialist like NSB.<br /><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Durian (Durio zibethinus), Anonymous Chinese artist, ~1820. </td></tr>
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<u><b>Accessing botanical samples</b></u><br />
Apparently, for each species of plant that has ever been identified, there is a "type" example that is the definitive example of that species, often collected by the scientist who first catalogued the plant. These "type" examples are kept as pressed specimens attached to paper and stored in "herbaria".<br /><br />
Botanists who are researching the taxonomy (classification) of plants often need to access these type specimens in order to check or examine some point of their structure.<br /><br />
And, for researchers in the developing world, this is where the problems start . . . <br /><br />
... because as a <a href="http://www.sajs.co.za/index.php/SAJS/article/view/161/231#2">linked article </a>explains, for the Rubiaceae (coffee plant) family, some 430 type specimens (over 95%) of catalogued species are stored in European herbaria (312 in the UK, 127 in Portugal, 99 in Franceand 70 in Belgium). There are only 50 type specimens in African herbaria, all duplicates of "definitive" type sample stored in Europe. <br /><br />
This relative lack of specimens in Africa means that researchers have to travel to Europe just to study speciments - which represents a significant economic burden on botancial departments that are already economically disadvantaged.<br /><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Grape Variety (Muscat Hamburgh) Goethe and Lauche, 1895 </td></tr>
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There are projects (such as the <a href="http://www.kew.org/science-research-data/directory/projects/API_AfrPlInitiative.htm">African Plants Initiative</a>) underway to digitally photograph these European herbaria, but the paper suggests that photographs cannot replace phyical examination of actual specimens and points out that if they could then perhaps the photograhps could stay in Europe and the actual speciments returned to Africa.<br /><br />
But returning speciments to Africa has its own issues as they would need to be suitably housed, curated and maintained - again a costly excercise for developing African countries. <br /><br />
<u><b>Photos versus pictures</b></u>
Another topic covered in the UoN article is that of the role of drawings to supplement the type samples and how drawings can be more useful because the artist is able to filter out some of the extraneous or irrelevant detail to focus on the the important structures of the plant. Indeed, for flora such as fungi, which cannot be dried without drastically changing their appearance, drawings are the key identifying tool.<br /><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgE-g7J-EKPyDkzkWqTZzu9hdeyhq72QaJLa-_oYlCo91nmVpx59NCK7EP9de9eqRhmhzojN0ekxoEwpMALUXAsxn-Nw0h3J9wLqQCE7p1MOgUz1Rt3W3gBVCsuSONlXTdAI7G9GWEBWwbs/s1600/417px-Dioscorides00.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left:1em; margin-right:1em"><img border="0" height="400" width="278" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgE-g7J-EKPyDkzkWqTZzu9hdeyhq72QaJLa-_oYlCo91nmVpx59NCK7EP9de9eqRhmhzojN0ekxoEwpMALUXAsxn-Nw0h3J9wLqQCE7p1MOgUz1Rt3W3gBVCsuSONlXTdAI7G9GWEBWwbs/s400/417px-Dioscorides00.jpg"></a>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Arabic translation of Dioscorides "De Materia Medica" c.1200</td></tr>
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<u><b>Other Comments</b></u><br />
Whilst digging around on the Interweb to prepare this post, NSB stumbled upon some other interesting related resources.<br /><br />
One is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_Flowers
">The Glass Flowers Collection </a>Harvard University which contains over 3000 painstakingly made glass models of various plants. They really are an incredible example of craftsmanship.<br /><br />
Wikipedia has an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_florilegia_and_botanical_codices">awesome, gorgeously illustrated, list </a>of Botanical Codices (NSB notes that it much much easier to look at and browse some of these illustrations at Wikipedia than at any of the Universities that are so lavishly funded with taxpayers money.)<br /><br />
<u><b>Image Sources</b></u><br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Doorean;_Durio_stercorae;_D._zibethina_Linn_(William_Farquhar_Collection,_1819%E2%80%931823).jpg">Durian</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rudolf_Goethe04.jpg"> Grapes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dioscorides00.jpg
">Arabic Translation</a>
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-15410813397767569142017-11-01T13:00:00.001-07:002017-11-01T13:00:28.742-07:00The difference between NUMBERS and RATES<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;"><a href="#9"> </a><a name="9"></a>Was talking to No3 Son recently about a piece of science homework in which he had to chart and comment on 2012-2014 cancer statistics. The data was a great example of how the NUMBER of cases can give a very different picture to the RATE of cases. Looking at the NUMBERS chart (red) one might think that 70-79 is where the biggest danger lies. This may be misleading as the graph shows the number of cases not the rate (e.g. per 100,000 people).<br /><br />
Using 2011 census data from Wikipedia, one can work out the number of cases per 100,000 people (blue chart). It is clearly different and now you can see that the older you are the more chance you have of getting cancer.<br /><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjot-iQr_1s-e6wRbnw7wzKPP0ElI2kxetv_qPJ56ClTOfLpPSB2gjIa8sCdbVydnIqq-YTZE92_eY9cMxQxwr6kgEeXMEnRWQMj1Yyp6J9C6DkpFphpDFm7ILTJtjuBRE4255XS9I2c1Ps/s1600/cancer1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjot-iQr_1s-e6wRbnw7wzKPP0ElI2kxetv_qPJ56ClTOfLpPSB2gjIa8sCdbVydnIqq-YTZE92_eY9cMxQxwr6kgEeXMEnRWQMj1Yyp6J9C6DkpFphpDFm7ILTJtjuBRE4255XS9I2c1Ps/s1600/cancer1.JPG" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">2012-2014 Cancer Data</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgru-ltfidd3Eko09piapQZMqtLWPwcGvMSMVNR_zke5CaQBSxdJzO2BsTvxjTDNDLM9Bd5T4eybNcK0dPXd6rUOuciPjkWkMgc6WhT0mr8S8kTc-6qknpr7DmdOETXn0KK8U8zWAEgwXHM/s1600/cancer+cases.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="141" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgru-ltfidd3Eko09piapQZMqtLWPwcGvMSMVNR_zke5CaQBSxdJzO2BsTvxjTDNDLM9Bd5T4eybNcK0dPXd6rUOuciPjkWkMgc6WhT0mr8S8kTc-6qknpr7DmdOETXn0KK8U8zWAEgwXHM/s320/cancer+cases.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cancer NUMBERS</td></tr>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiS2mnr9n9yvxVuaA8WjnUcsp2n5R4elfvrDBc8qYylDySQFzzq8pGBPAIqD_C0uIdZZU-SL52tEiloi7l2DQY0Nu9Ay_X7jAIg3nQTgwjVwdHaJych04FrOK2Nu60xEnQYr_Z9bRi2I4Gf/s1600/cancer+rates.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="183" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiS2mnr9n9yvxVuaA8WjnUcsp2n5R4elfvrDBc8qYylDySQFzzq8pGBPAIqD_C0uIdZZU-SL52tEiloi7l2DQY0Nu9Ay_X7jAIg3nQTgwjVwdHaJych04FrOK2Nu60xEnQYr_Z9bRi2I4Gf/s320/cancer+rates.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cancer RATES</td></tr>
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<br />
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-49391070753432509852017-10-28T13:44:00.002-07:002017-10-28T14:52:22.754-07:00Dinosaur of China Exhibition<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
This summer long <a href="http://www.dinosaursofchina.co.uk/">exhibition</a> at Wollaton Hall showcases some of the incredible dinosaur fossils that have been found in China in recent decades. Many Chinese rocks are unusual in that they are composed on fine sediments which buried and preserved dinosaurs quickly - and preserved their structures in incredible detail. <br /><br />
Feathered dinosaurs formed a large part of the exhibition, but there were many other types of dinosaur on show as well. A few of the exhibits that particularly caught NSB's attention are shown below.<br /><br />
<u><b>Microraptor</u></b><br />
Early Cretaceous, ~120million years ago<br />
This is the first fossil of this type that was found, back in 2003. Microraptor has claws on its hands and feet, FOUR wings and was capable of flight. <br /><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTFPVR6U1JaybWpURV9XlxwTywEEiZjC3zAVFrpSmynNvG6eADbeWdo6iPjX49dYAjDEI2eLUNNhQYbjuOJp8-O54fbEkmnzncvsvD_1HjPNSM7kAYeYzSCwUgjr77y5GsVJH6nWWDZYhY/s1600/micro2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="588" data-original-width="500" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTFPVR6U1JaybWpURV9XlxwTywEEiZjC3zAVFrpSmynNvG6eADbeWdo6iPjX49dYAjDEI2eLUNNhQYbjuOJp8-O54fbEkmnzncvsvD_1HjPNSM7kAYeYzSCwUgjr77y5GsVJH6nWWDZYhY/s320/micro2.jpg" width="272" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Artist impression of Microraptor</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2Biept8osBNrrp8Pm0l7zDKvXy2X4BO_gqVM7eTueTvfGRLzx3ppE9HNx3-WGdlBRYQ8ZnmQ2IUutKqnCYDjgqNeLZvF6isiQuFPL-4BrCAyrbaMbr-oilnBKPtCOuwWB8qJpWAs8NMCZ/s1600/micro+2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="435" data-original-width="700" height="198" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2Biept8osBNrrp8Pm0l7zDKvXy2X4BO_gqVM7eTueTvfGRLzx3ppE9HNx3-WGdlBRYQ8ZnmQ2IUutKqnCYDjgqNeLZvF6isiQuFPL-4BrCAyrbaMbr-oilnBKPtCOuwWB8qJpWAs8NMCZ/s320/micro+2.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Microraptor fossil - you can see the feathers</td></tr>
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<u><b>Sinornithosaurus</u></b><br />
Early Cretaceous, ~125million years ago<br />
Fossils of Sinornithodaurus show that the body of this creature was covered in a short fuzz of simple, soft, feathers - giving clues to the steps in feather evolution. It is likely that Velociraptor, a close relative of Sinornithodaurus was also similarly fuzzy.<br /><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh49iYJUQN-O7zXczw7lXdT8R-z6hRvA8GCliK-gboJIAN1o0OlpPmQmN-2UAh7MN7yGCKKFVKHIqcD0eYRxWjXK7BCqlfwgdXhlgSlVY2vE1g78-8vl5yqZuvMpgBSlt6OfDcMKH4ArUQb/s1600/sino1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="545" data-original-width="600" height="290" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh49iYJUQN-O7zXczw7lXdT8R-z6hRvA8GCliK-gboJIAN1o0OlpPmQmN-2UAh7MN7yGCKKFVKHIqcD0eYRxWjXK7BCqlfwgdXhlgSlVY2vE1g78-8vl5yqZuvMpgBSlt6OfDcMKH4ArUQb/s320/sino1.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Artist impression of Sinornithosaurus</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuc3hEjHOKBwvm2gNUkAPHW-LW01KtHlOlbyqzEwVqJe71JYQhI9ze7jmsjISNWiGAFZqCemfX1zQxTnzm7kNpTG9x_WGenR8nL2jeVDUXurm971_DTKvigKd9_JI_IdvGdnqn3VwsZOss/s1600/sino2+%25282%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="375" data-original-width="700" height="171" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuc3hEjHOKBwvm2gNUkAPHW-LW01KtHlOlbyqzEwVqJe71JYQhI9ze7jmsjISNWiGAFZqCemfX1zQxTnzm7kNpTG9x_WGenR8nL2jeVDUXurm971_DTKvigKd9_JI_IdvGdnqn3VwsZOss/s320/sino2+%25282%2529.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fossil of Sinornithosaurus</td></tr>
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<br />
<u><b>Yi Qi</u></b><br />
Middle/Upper Jurassic, 160million years ago<br />
A dinosaur with unique wings that were formed from webs of skin, rather than feathers, although it was covered in an insulating fuzz.<br /><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHCvFLGeOPI3L-abK8YJyTVIhdlDRbTIS90bqFJTOzg54cREdTvm9fnFOI2MFQ3kNKLT9EZFIgAs9JTZkzYgFzWpKO0E14imOJXCnzXmi0qfBzssPwAYh21ed3tK4Z3w1qBKyzdZemUXoJ/s1600/yi+qi.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="517" data-original-width="500" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHCvFLGeOPI3L-abK8YJyTVIhdlDRbTIS90bqFJTOzg54cREdTvm9fnFOI2MFQ3kNKLT9EZFIgAs9JTZkzYgFzWpKO0E14imOJXCnzXmi0qfBzssPwAYh21ed3tK4Z3w1qBKyzdZemUXoJ/s320/yi+qi.jpg" width="309" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Artist impression of Yi Qi</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br /><br /><br />
<u><b>Gigantoraptor</u></b><br />
Late Cretaceous, ~80million years ago<br />
The largest known bird-like dinosaur! Clearly too heavy to fly, its feathers may have been used in courtship displays. No-one knows what this large beaked dinosaur ate!<br /><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0D84hDKk3UfweYlShoaq-lDuTGR8V1a_6kSf5Gdr6qShvHhJOqfTMe4NTp5bDlAor3vtYsW8rOxvTt5_x3iPObkwyR9sZqAcUZXIFt0UDAZMjPz9VwbPrU67aCbj5Y_JeBdZPBoLbHmEC/s1600/gignt2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="535" data-original-width="400" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0D84hDKk3UfweYlShoaq-lDuTGR8V1a_6kSf5Gdr6qShvHhJOqfTMe4NTp5bDlAor3vtYsW8rOxvTt5_x3iPObkwyR9sZqAcUZXIFt0UDAZMjPz9VwbPrU67aCbj5Y_JeBdZPBoLbHmEC/s320/gignt2.jpg" width="239" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Artist impression of Gigantoraptor</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGVb5K-y1ZtopjXLkPGGTw6XR0k2A-dcH6eMghO6SJNGue0I8tkC8Y8y1j-VPvN0K_39sTygSadotIYcSa_IFgpVnnEUudqg_MVPAg2dZqY2rfGmBT4biaZXq-Hhl7qLA95BLSlWPRVqkO/s1600/gigant.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="327" data-original-width="535" height="195" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGVb5K-y1ZtopjXLkPGGTw6XR0k2A-dcH6eMghO6SJNGue0I8tkC8Y8y1j-VPvN0K_39sTygSadotIYcSa_IFgpVnnEUudqg_MVPAg2dZqY2rfGmBT4biaZXq-Hhl7qLA95BLSlWPRVqkO/s320/gigant.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Gigantorapor</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<u><b>Mamenchisaurus</u></b><br />
Late Jurassic, 160million years ago<br />
This sauropod is 23m long from head to tail and, in the rearing posture shown in the exhibition, is over 13m tall - higher than three double decker buses! The bones in its neck overlap with each other, which gave support but also resulted in the neck being rigid.<br /><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwtPi6ZcTS_4sBMgsBUQ20WfrR18BmBBdjvW7pLoeTIUKex6Z4CTxxum8HDyW6kmkKOhLBisa4i5Md47Q_bhoRBlswPAsR8GnHgbKjdJDNjgXbu9pgSP1TbaCqxQyNtmGhxxDLMNZ-JY5T/s1600/mamen.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="494" data-original-width="500" height="316" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwtPi6ZcTS_4sBMgsBUQ20WfrR18BmBBdjvW7pLoeTIUKex6Z4CTxxum8HDyW6kmkKOhLBisa4i5Md47Q_bhoRBlswPAsR8GnHgbKjdJDNjgXbu9pgSP1TbaCqxQyNtmGhxxDLMNZ-JY5T/s320/mamen.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Mamenchisaurus</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
The exhibition also provided information on some of the key Chinese figures in palaeontology: <br />
<a href="http://english.ivpp.cas.cn/pe/cm/">Dr Chung Chien Young</a><br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dong_Zhiming">Dong Zhiming</a><br />
Prof Tan Lin who gave a talk on <a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.co.uk/2016/11/talk-ground-shakers-and-feathered-flyers.html">"Ground Shakers and Feathered Flyers"</a> in Nottingham a while back.<br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xu_Xing_(paleontologist)">Dr Xu Xing</a><br /><br /><br />
<u><b>Image Sources</u></b><br />
All fossil photos by NSB<br />
All artists impression are photos of exhibition artwork by <a href="http://www.yiniao.org/en/aboutus/pnso">PNSO</a><br /><br />
<u><b>Related Content</u></b><br />
<a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.co.uk/2012/07/doggerland-europes-lost-world.html">Doggerland - Europe's lost continent</a><br />
<a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.co.uk/2013/03/talk-world-in-10-fossils.html">The world in 10 Fossils</a><br />
Susannah Lydons<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/jul/05/feathered-dinosaurs-from-china-visit-the-uk"> article</a> on the exhibition in the Guardian.<br /><br />
</span></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-27378328447239718222017-10-28T03:18:00.001-07:002017-10-28T03:18:56.746-07:00Gabions (rocks in wire cages)<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;"><a href="#9"> </a><a name="9"></a>Over the last few years, NSB has noticed the appearance of wire cages filled with rocks (known as "gabions") as a construction material for buildings and in civil engineering - and has been wondering what they are and why they have suddenly started appearing.<br/>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXlVnwobDDWTbKnCKXmagVq1j3GnZfFC3MZM6CtrSegu5EWWy0MMRC2Y8b9vIHagl6O_sjelsDW3FghxoBAu_4UEIbf10gpKyDzOAQF8xxbO379_cN9GICHcIHN6G33qDFHDFPDsHPJull/s1600/gabion+1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXlVnwobDDWTbKnCKXmagVq1j3GnZfFC3MZM6CtrSegu5EWWy0MMRC2Y8b9vIHagl6O_sjelsDW3FghxoBAu_4UEIbf10gpKyDzOAQF8xxbO379_cN9GICHcIHN6G33qDFHDFPDsHPJull/s320/gabion+1.JPG" width="290" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Gabion Wall at Nottingham 1</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiR_9w25DWcN9Ic_5NrSlc3B84DpMyRrvFNo7VA5aAVT_zo8T7MqWmqQzwZyL_f0wo8-cvagmobqsiTWo6-hcwSSp74h1BsrIBLFZ1mbmeasVN2qPW1DrEPaI6BbD5CcAflC5XAWm3CK6RM/s1600/gabion+bridge.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiR_9w25DWcN9Ic_5NrSlc3B84DpMyRrvFNo7VA5aAVT_zo8T7MqWmqQzwZyL_f0wo8-cvagmobqsiTWo6-hcwSSp74h1BsrIBLFZ1mbmeasVN2qPW1DrEPaI6BbD5CcAflC5XAWm3CK6RM/s320/gabion+bridge.JPG" width="232" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Example of a Gabion abutment</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Initially, NSB thought that they were being used for environmental reasons, to allow wildlife to grow and live in all the nooks and crannies between the rocks.<br/><br />
Then NSB thought that they were being used as an anti-grafiiti measure, as it is hard to make a recognisable image when the surface is so irregular.<br/><br />
Turns out that gabions have been used for a long time to stabilize shorelines, stream banks or slopes against erosion. They are also increasingly being used in architectural applications for their "natural" look. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maccaferri_gabion">Maccaferri</a>, a world leader in the technology <a href="http://www.maccaferri.com/uk/enduring-success-maccaferris-gabion/">comment </a>that :<br/>
<i>
<blockquote>"The Gabion is, in fact, a peculiar tool. It does not impose itself on the surrounding environment: it perfectly blends into it. A Gabion is almost always filled with natural materials: stones/rocks and, where possible, locally available materials can be used to fill the structure, thereby ensuring that very little is added (and removed) to the surrounding nature....The Gabion, furthermore, “joins” the nature that hosts it: plants and trees can “sink” their roots in the interstices left free by the rock fill, helping to strengthen the overall system. Nature is no longer a passive actor: it is indeed called to “work” in synergy with man-made structures. This is the environmental engineering of the future."</blockquote></i><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZPMWTqOYfSdVB83lYZzw9vGIHijixvzTYB7xCvJlK6v9eOUXyiStOPmQ6WDZmJ3O9rW45_2Pxe0LUDY0ldiTGfshKkQ3q55v2S3AINORgjp89f7sGROTw4DK4qXPeDKsOVM68Y4hwxmt4/s1600/gabion+2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZPMWTqOYfSdVB83lYZzw9vGIHijixvzTYB7xCvJlK6v9eOUXyiStOPmQ6WDZmJ3O9rW45_2Pxe0LUDY0ldiTGfshKkQ3q55v2S3AINORgjp89f7sGROTw4DK4qXPeDKsOVM68Y4hwxmt4/s320/gabion+2.JPG" width="236" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Gabion wall at Nottingham 1</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Worth noting that, in the urban environment, its a good idea to ensure that "youths" can't get the stones out through the mesh, as this <a href="http://www.nottinghampost.com/thoughtless-vandals-killed-retired-residents/story-12166784-detail/story.html">cautionary tale</a> from Sneinton, Nottingham illustrates.<br/><br />
<u><b>Update Oct 2017</u></b><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSCjQiWo7ZTkduqZdjy0EbK8DgfYEeyobQojpMXY5IEx6T543_hHgxuzmsc_I9rfKUHb8E3vX9CVQDDSYTN-cGoj3vaWYDXgi3mpUMuO-E1Tpq3joHERTrXUqi8elEvbiM_9IBWc_cIJoH/s1600/block.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="687" data-original-width="490" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSCjQiWo7ZTkduqZdjy0EbK8DgfYEeyobQojpMXY5IEx6T543_hHgxuzmsc_I9rfKUHb8E3vX9CVQDDSYTN-cGoj3vaWYDXgi3mpUMuO-E1Tpq3joHERTrXUqi8elEvbiM_9IBWc_cIJoH/s320/block.jpg" width="228" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Saw this rather decorative gabion in Germany recently</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<u><b>Image Sources</u></b><br/>
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabion#/media/File:Gabion_040.jpg">Abutment</a><br /><br/>
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-48754516293921152112017-10-22T13:37:00.002-07:002017-10-22T13:41:54.192-07:00Talk : Exoplanets<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
Café Sci returns after its summer hiatus with <a href="http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/people/michael.merrifield">Michael Merrifield</a> talking all about exoplanets.<br/><br/>
<a href="https://twitter.com/gavsquires">@Gav Squires</a> was there and has kindly written this guest post summarising the event, with some linkage added by NSB.<br/><br/>
Exoplanets are defined as those planets that are outside our solar system and we now know of around 3,500 of them that are orbiting various stars.<br/><br/>
In the middle of the 18th century, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> gave us the modern view of how the galaxy works based on observations of the solar system. We'd extrapolated our understanding out and applied it to the whole universe and we thought that we knew how everything worked. For example, in the solar system, all of the big planets are outside the ice line whereas those planets inside are smaller. Using ice is one of the easiest ways to make things stick together and we assumed that we would see the same big/small planet split in other star systems.<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhayqOt51jnwiZh0UDcbLPMZxgSHH_FzPbzlU8dS9yzxvKZvnHjgShygbjggrDIcqbO80UcmBfvQRMLyEtaYrsZDgqgHQY_QAc0DU3UxjiDHPvn0gBU2ZHtZKIC5xeTIRS9Sh9izE2v40Fo/s1600/merrifield+small.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="466" data-original-width="444" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhayqOt51jnwiZh0UDcbLPMZxgSHH_FzPbzlU8dS9yzxvKZvnHjgShygbjggrDIcqbO80UcmBfvQRMLyEtaYrsZDgqgHQY_QAc0DU3UxjiDHPvn0gBU2ZHtZKIC5xeTIRS9Sh9izE2v40Fo/s320/merrifield+small.PNG" width="304" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Prof Merrifield, via Gav Squires</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
The first exoplanet, the catchily titled <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD_114762_b">HD114762b</a>, was discovered in 1989 by David Latham. It was detected by measuring the Doppler shift as the star was effected by the gravity of the planet. Since it was thought that large planets (HD114762b is about 5-10 times the size of Jupiter) wouldn't be that close to a star and so it was originally misidentified as a brown dwarf star. A pulsar is the end state of a star - as they spin around, they can be used like a clock and are actually more accurate than atomic clocks here on Earth. In 1992, three planets were discovered orbiting a pulsar.<br/><br/>
A quarter of the exoplanets that have been discovered have been found using this Doppler shift method, looking for the effect of the planet's gravity on the star that it orbits. Most exoplanets are discovered using the occultation method though. As a planet passes between us and its star it blocks out light from the star. We need a fair bit of luck for this method to work though as the orbit needs to be edge on for us to notice the planet's transit. This technique will give the radius of the planet and the radial velocity will give the mass and so we can calculate the density (as an side, Saturn is less dense than water). It is also possible to tell about the atmosphere of exoplanets and how much light is reflected from their surface.<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5lQIDCZ6mOrjXs6GZxr52JwLllIjwIcH36sqyhzAxNv2OqWr9LYJUIfJKe_ZhyphenhyphenUno0inpvCOndyLenQToVu5uXitzLCaT4iXRQ5JovEksj0vP1v2xgVGG34pwLaZ27-Pm4Z-zHovoh_Ly/s1600/320px-Kepler_6b.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="213" data-original-width="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5lQIDCZ6mOrjXs6GZxr52JwLllIjwIcH36sqyhzAxNv2OqWr9LYJUIfJKe_ZhyphenhyphenUno0inpvCOndyLenQToVu5uXitzLCaT4iXRQ5JovEksj0vP1v2xgVGG34pwLaZ27-Pm4Z-zHovoh_Ly/s1600/320px-Kepler_6b.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kepler6B photometry - showing light from star being blocked as planet passes in front</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Occultation can even help to discover moons around exoplanets. In the summer, Kepler-1625b1 was tentatively announced as the first ever exomoon - it seems to be a Neptune-sized moon orbiting a Jupiter-sized planet. Another technique for discovering exoplanets is micro lensing - a star with a planet produces a different effect compared to a star without one. This is better at detecting planets that are further away from the star but it is a one-shot deal as it won’t line-up again.[a list of exoplanet detection methods can be found <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_exoplanets">here</a>]<br/><br/>
Exoplanet systems are incredibly common, even our nearest star, Proxima Centauri, which is 4 light years away, has an Earth-sized planet orbiting it. The planet is at 0.05AU from Proxima Centauri and orbits once every 11 days and it could be tidally locked - the same side faces the star in the same way that one side of the moon always faces Earth. Proxima Centauri is a weak star but the planet still gets around 70% of the sunlight that Earth gets. This means that it is around -39oC but there could still be liquid water there if there is a greenhouse effect. However, there is unlikely to be any life as Proxima Centauri is a flare star - it regularly emits massive x-ray stellar flares, irradiating the planet.<br/><br/>
Professor Stephen Hawking is involved with a project called <a href="https://breakthroughinitiatives.org/Initiative/3">Star Shot</a> that would like to send a satellite to visit the planet around Proxima Centauri. By firing a powerful laser at a spacecraft, the size of a postage stamp it would be possible to speed it up to 20% the speed of light so it would arrive in just 20 years. Of course, there is still the issue of creating a satellite that small and many such satellites would need to be sent to cover the possibility that they could crash or fail. Once fired off, it wouldn't be possible to slow them down either so each satellite would only be able to make one fly past of the planet.<br/><br/>
Based on existing technology, a more realistic idea may be using a solar sail - a satellite the size of a bar of soap would require a sail the size of 10 football fields. Light from the sun would speed it up, although it would take 80 years to get there. We are already able to make a satellite around that size and we would be able to use Alpha Centauri to slow it down in order to actually take some photographs.<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVVypCBOMkKKiOqUOff7SoRFcR90jrmzEabm7O9UttEtX_yvPIzrcBUy63wxQlWq66JEN5X_ikxG_RHguQlEnRbWu_YwuEOd3wlT7jlNV0To8tgs-Kmdch1eyc342VOXcI4NKSRqAw5K5i/s1600/300px-Solarsail_msfc.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="240" data-original-width="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVVypCBOMkKKiOqUOff7SoRFcR90jrmzEabm7O9UttEtX_yvPIzrcBUy63wxQlWq66JEN5X_ikxG_RHguQlEnRbWu_YwuEOd3wlT7jlNV0To8tgs-Kmdch1eyc342VOXcI4NKSRqAw5K5i/s1600/300px-Solarsail_msfc.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">NASA illustration of the unlit side of a half-kilometre solar sail</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRAPPIST">TRAPPIST</a> is the really contrived acronym for a pair of Belgian telescopes that discovered the TRAPPIST-1 system, which features 7 exoplanets. The star is the size of Jupiter and the planets are orbiting at the same distance as the moons of Jupiter. 3 of the planets are in the so-called habitable zone and all 7 of them are in resonance with each other, which is what has actually led to the stability of the system. The SETI people have been focussing on this system but haven't heard anything yet.<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjk229bpFnm_Tp-D2LgDKAmUMuTUGT-UKF6ITypgjOXk2w6sRqQhuhAxhNJ5P6QBAi7-xt1Su6xOvr1gvOsp3QlBNRSLqDLogT9p0QeTeOeTZH1qF_bd1Zro8ZzzsI8rFIYSJd1ocjZ9qjB/s1600/trappist.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="240" data-original-width="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjk229bpFnm_Tp-D2LgDKAmUMuTUGT-UKF6ITypgjOXk2w6sRqQhuhAxhNJ5P6QBAi7-xt1Su6xOvr1gvOsp3QlBNRSLqDLogT9p0QeTeOeTZH1qF_bd1Zro8ZzzsI8rFIYSJd1ocjZ9qjB/s1600/trappist.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Artist Impression of TRAPPIST -1 System</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
The term "Hot Jupiter" was coined to describe these massive planets that are close to their stars and their discovery has meant that we have had to rethink what we know about the creation of stellar systems. We are now starting to see the discs around stars - planets from in the gaps in these discs so if we can see these gaps, it implies that planets are starting to form and we can hopefully start to learn more about how planetary systems form.<br/><br/>
The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremely_Large_Telescope">European Extremely Large Telescope</a> is currently being built in Chile and is set to be completed in 2025. Its main mirror is 39 metres in diameter and it is proof that we can now do things on the ground that we couldn't even conceive of 10-15 years ago - not all telescopes need to be in space. The EELT will have such sharp images that we'll actually be able to see the planets themselves. We will even be able to tell which wavelengths are absorbed by their atmospheres - if we detect ozone, it would be proof that there is life on a planet.<br/><br/>
There is a huge bias in the planets that we have been detecting since it is easier to find big planets - we've just been discovering the easy ones. We are starting to discover some oddities though - it seemed like one start, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIC_8462852">Tabby's Star</a>, might even have a Dyson Sphere around it. While the changes in brightness emanating from it were relatively consistent with what was expected from a Dyson Sphere but the latest results show that UV & IR absorptions are different, meaning that it looks like it’s just naturally occurring dust.<br/><br/>
Café Sci will return to The Vat & Fiddle on the 13th of November at 20:00 where David Nicholson-Cole from the University of Nottingham will talk on The Skyscraper - From mid-20th century to 2030. For more information check out the Café Sci MeetUp page: <a href="https://www.meetup.com/nottingham-culture-cafe-sci/">https://www.meetup.com/nottingham-culture-cafe-sci/</a><br/><br/>
<u><b>Related Content:</b></u><br />
<a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.com/2012/12/fee-autobiography.html">Fee- An Autobiography</a></br />
<a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.com/2012/08/curiosity-lands-on-mars.html
">Curiosity, Twitter and the British Connection</a><br />
<a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.com/2012/03/interview-prof-alfonso-aragon-salamanca_05.html">Interview with Prof Aragon-Salamanca</a><br />
<a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.com/2012/02/interview-chris-lintott-and-zooniverse.html">Interview with Prof Chris Lintott</a><br />
<a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.com/2012/01/background-to-space-shuttle.html">Some background to the Space Shuttle</a><br />
<a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.com/2011/12/public-lecture-chris-lintott.html">Lecture by Chris Lintott on 2011 Astronomy highlights</a><br /><br />
<u><b>Image Sources:</u></b><br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kepler_6b.png">Kepler6b Transiting light level</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PIA21429_-_Transit_Illustration_of_TRAPPIST-1_(cropped).jpg">TRAPPIST-1 system</a>
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_sail#/media/File:Solarsail_msfc.jpg">Solar Sail</a>
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-68979296982360569582017-09-17T15:18:00.000-07:002019-07-29T13:28:23.790-07:00Pseudoscience on Social Media<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;"><a href="#9"> </a><a name="9"></a>Some examples of Pseudoscience on Social Media.<br /><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg86sugruqYOzy1x9sphEevguSInuVtu_FMKLsmJeFJ7y8hmcisI6ThiuixCLoTeCXfbHf2Xif36HJQK2UkyA6gnuBJHQMzkOGIW5_qzRI7m3pE9kjNMdIhMl3LDWfvuwNyosmI_iY5yYOL/s1600/glyphosate.jpg" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" data-original-height="960" data-original-width="735" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg86sugruqYOzy1x9sphEevguSInuVtu_FMKLsmJeFJ7y8hmcisI6ThiuixCLoTeCXfbHf2Xif36HJQK2UkyA6gnuBJHQMzkOGIW5_qzRI7m3pE9kjNMdIhMl3LDWfvuwNyosmI_iY5yYOL/s200/glyphosate.jpg" width="244" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Glyphosate meme</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
This meme is not quite in the lunatic vein as the other posts on this page, because concern about herbicides is legitimate and they do cause significant issues. However, is the specific claim correct?<br/><br/>
The quick way to find out is to google "oreos glyphosate snopes" which returns <a href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/monsanto-suppressing-evidence-of-cancerous-herbicide-in-food/">this link</a> describing the claim as "False"<br/><br/>
But lets assume that information was not available and we only have the meme to go on. what questions could one ask to determine whether it is correct or not:<br/><br/>
Is it a reputable site or one that is full of misinformation?<br/>
Does it reference the original data?<br/>
Does this claim fit with what you know about the world?<br/>
What are they actually claiming, and what are they being careful to omit? <br/>
Do they start with a legitimate piece of research (in a bit to establish credibility) and then drift off into conspiracy theory and wild claims? <br/><br/>
A bit of googling reveals the <a href="https://usrtk.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/FDN_Glyphosate_FoodTesting_Report_p2016-3.pdf">original source</a> of the data in a report by Food Democracy Now.<br/><br/>
And a <a href=" https://www.factcheck.org/2017/08/glyphosate-cause-cancer/">factcheck</a> of it, which comments:<br/><br/>
<i><blockquote>"In March 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer, the cancer agency of WHO located in Lyon, France, did classify glyphosate as “probably carcinogenic to humans...but in May 2016, a group of pesticide residue experts at WHO and the United Nations also concluded that glyphosate is “unlikely to pose a carcinogenic risk to humans” through their diets."</blockquote></i><br/>
Factcheck describes how these two claims are not contradictory : <br/><br/>
<i><blockquote>"The 2015 IARC conclusion aimed to identify any potential cancer hazard glyphosate may pose to humans at some level of exposure, WHO explains. But in 2016, the pesticide residue experts at WHO and the U.N. assessed the actual cancer risk the herbicide poses to consumers at a specific level of exposure, namely the level commonly found in foods....IARC and the pesticide residue experts also looked at different sets of data to make their conclusions. For example, IARC only took into consideration published research when making its conclusions, while the pesticide residue researchers also considered unpublished data."</blockquote></i><br/>
<i><blockquote>"Looking at the actual numbers, the US Environmental Protection Agency sets glyphosate’s chronic reference dose at a maximum of 1.75 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day. However, it’s important to point out that the agency didn’t set this amount specifically for cancer, but health effects in general."</blockquote></i><br/>
So, for a 10kg child, that is an allowance of 17.5mg per day<br/><br/>
An Oreo weighs around 3g, or 3000mg, and with Glyphosate at 289ppb(=0.289ppm) we have one Oreo ccontaining 0.000000289 x 3000mg = 0.0009mg of glyphosate which is far, far below allowed US level of 17.5mg/day (and EU tolerances are even lower).<br/><br/>
Food Democracy Now go to claim that the existing safe limits are too high, quoting data in a way that may or may not be appropriate. <br/><br/>
As ever, the Wikipedia page on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyphosate-based_herbicides">Glyphosate based herbicides</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyphosate">on Glyphosate the chemical</a> are a good place to start to find out more.<br/><br/>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifaQhl4FaCgIgHDC1nVsCz8RFngCqUV3h9ZzVtgxnb-BIwnOfdpec2RtljYFVXwkM0SXuRCMTfFrzat_hPMjQa4hikt2H1zKf5fWmm1dI2lVUOSuoydMR3S1rsRm7EE-51rURQD2vVffZN/s1600/fake+nov.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="330" data-original-width="498" height="212" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifaQhl4FaCgIgHDC1nVsCz8RFngCqUV3h9ZzVtgxnb-BIwnOfdpec2RtljYFVXwkM0SXuRCMTfFrzat_hPMjQa4hikt2H1zKf5fWmm1dI2lVUOSuoydMR3S1rsRm7EE-51rURQD2vVffZN/s320/fake+nov.JPG" width="320" /></a></div>
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Seen Autumn 2018<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKgfZhhR-QCSw790_E7FAQhf572f2dC0m49ZXbXP3TnkZtJvgoj1hv5hWWAZWZQEZdNXUo_CwGDE4M79gyQyU3XDYBoNx2gWjBDMd2Ko_QdD7yf2TfMOs4j1xq2UyERh6eqdRCUHfwYkMZ/s1600/alzheimers.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="519" data-original-width="516" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKgfZhhR-QCSw790_E7FAQhf572f2dC0m49ZXbXP3TnkZtJvgoj1hv5hWWAZWZQEZdNXUo_CwGDE4M79gyQyU3XDYBoNx2gWjBDMd2Ko_QdD7yf2TfMOs4j1xq2UyERh6eqdRCUHfwYkMZ/s320/alzheimers.JPG" width="318" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">2018</td></tr>
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Seen Summer 2018<br/><br/>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZ3RHNOd4EpoJlMRvskl_8cK6f6lIyKvApTS0EOf3gJyAHwCOff_xtKPSTHb_8eyKu3cCZZSvwiP1c29vWfOc_lvojU6EmaLn8SCZ2dTgyIx3pnViBpl6dySYfu062TeTUx8WlyR0Ol7Xi/s1600/1st+jul.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="535" data-original-width="495" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZ3RHNOd4EpoJlMRvskl_8cK6f6lIyKvApTS0EOf3gJyAHwCOff_xtKPSTHb_8eyKu3cCZZSvwiP1c29vWfOc_lvojU6EmaLn8SCZ2dTgyIx3pnViBpl6dySYfu062TeTUx8WlyR0Ol7Xi/s320/1st+jul.JPG" width="296" /></a></div>
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An <a href="http://www.science20.com/robert_walker/floods_of_fake_astronomy_fill_google_news_making_young_children_scared_sick_suicidal-227826">article</a> by <a href="http://www.science20.com/profile/robert_walker">Robert Walker </a>on "Science 2.0" describes the fear that fake doomesday stories on Google News (and other sites) are causing to children and your adults :<br /><br />
<blockquote><i>"This is a serious problem. It's not just the misinformation and people growing up with this totally fake astronomy education. These stories are also scary, especially for young children, or young parents with babies, because they usually also tell them that the world is about to end in the next week or month or some other short timescale."</i></blockquote><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Via Twitter</td></tr>
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US Senator <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Inhofe">Jim Inhofe</a> sets what may be the gold standard for denialism, back in Feb 2015.<br /><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaqEZNkYPrPYvQoG4949dBWtb9azGif6bD4svtRtiRBKWjIe-MgqnAE_eVBjB1lxveFOCpgCWKbExWdmvKkdn5amWFegFIO7EnrkdEujzW-pmy73a0sBd3db_DzAhpnkdsmJ8EiCeyeZD5/s1600/warming+paper+29th+may.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="170" data-original-width="314" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaqEZNkYPrPYvQoG4949dBWtb9azGif6bD4svtRtiRBKWjIe-MgqnAE_eVBjB1lxveFOCpgCWKbExWdmvKkdn5amWFegFIO7EnrkdEujzW-pmy73a0sBd3db_DzAhpnkdsmJ8EiCeyeZD5/s1600/warming+paper+29th+may.JPG" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Via Twitter</td></tr>
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The above was Tweeted by East Mids UKIP MEP @RogerHelmer.<br /><br />
<a href="http://www.snopes.com/scientific-papers-global-warming-myth/">Snopes</a> has looked into this article, which originated on Breitbart News, and comments that :<br/><br/>
"We reached out to many of the authors of the studies included on this list via email to see if they agreed with Breitbart and No Tricks Zone’s analysis. While not everyone we reached out to responded, not a single researcher that we spoke to agreed with Breitbart’s assessment, and most were shocked when we told them that their work was presented as evidence for that claim."<br/><br/>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Via Facebook</td></tr>
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(Post first seen by NSB in 2017).A Facebook post poking fun at pseudoscience conspiracy theories.<br /><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhH9zIF_tAJwM_PoYWD-Qt9T6kRiRx2_PEw1YnZgeRH6YtWrJ36ORmUjEmLZaMoNtaVfy1b7N6SIYTtLQ8UfK06VPneteKnhKD6vpH-DNlqqJYxuhNexeLcu0labKLBrtJW09cU8xsGAE55/s1600/14+aug+fluoeride+1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="581" data-original-width="493" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhH9zIF_tAJwM_PoYWD-Qt9T6kRiRx2_PEw1YnZgeRH6YtWrJ36ORmUjEmLZaMoNtaVfy1b7N6SIYTtLQ8UfK06VPneteKnhKD6vpH-DNlqqJYxuhNexeLcu0labKLBrtJW09cU8xsGAE55/s320/14+aug+fluoeride+1.JPG" width="271" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuicFF8wZdNy8tYW5RjT3RvUB35rSr0Ag2KlYarofvMQOuOD510swp7WAFupM0lVRFHAf3CPykgC4B5LDOiLt1glWXRoRbSoDsCnnNf4AbShkuaLpV4-xBruxzyHoh8u5iUFPsn8SyVD4E/s1600/14+aug+fluoeride+2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="483" height="317" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuicFF8wZdNy8tYW5RjT3RvUB35rSr0Ag2KlYarofvMQOuOD510swp7WAFupM0lVRFHAf3CPykgC4B5LDOiLt1glWXRoRbSoDsCnnNf4AbShkuaLpV4-xBruxzyHoh8u5iUFPsn8SyVD4E/s320/14+aug+fluoeride+2.JPG" width="320" /></a></div>
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(Post first seen by NSB in 2017.). Does Fluoridation cause cancer? Answer is that there are so few of the most likely cancers (even before fluoridation) that it is difficult to tell. More information in this article by the <a href="https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-causes/water-fluoridation-and-cancer-risk.html">American Cancer Society</a>.<br/><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheM9NaFaJw8IemXsTRvTKyHD2_fJyBL-h7j87QIyrKK9xWNz2yE5oBEeTqjyuwczUEPtqD5l7kIES7Lh47Ee7r8rPSIJd5Ehdt62FEABauAxYYkd08hEqvMwoEMMuL_vuy4WgOWOsn2w_0/s1600/cannabis.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheM9NaFaJw8IemXsTRvTKyHD2_fJyBL-h7j87QIyrKK9xWNz2yE5oBEeTqjyuwczUEPtqD5l7kIES7Lh47Ee7r8rPSIJd5Ehdt62FEABauAxYYkd08hEqvMwoEMMuL_vuy4WgOWOsn2w_0/s320/cannabis.PNG" width="265" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cannabis does not cure cancers</td></tr>
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"Dangerous pseudo-science that could get people killed if they use cannabis oil instead of medical advice. In contrast to the claims in the article, there are MANY studies on the effects of cannabisits effects - for example at <a href="http://scienceblog.cancerresearchuk.org/2012/07/25/cannabis-cannabinoids-and-cancer-the-evidence-so-far/#can-treat">CancerResearchUK</a> page".<br /><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDJK3oWjSlk0fINXKdWbOOI82PwqYIpEM_r4Rc-t2sseGm9CfcpHaFrt7B2WiAaEzWvfRmEk-QHX24gtro4cxohVfG57xFU_YueXBDz-yc8WTDsDCOPmoey5eE9r6Fy3qZfyBU9tXHz2MV/s1600/flu.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDJK3oWjSlk0fINXKdWbOOI82PwqYIpEM_r4Rc-t2sseGm9CfcpHaFrt7B2WiAaEzWvfRmEk-QHX24gtro4cxohVfG57xFU_YueXBDz-yc8WTDsDCOPmoey5eE9r6Fy3qZfyBU9tXHz2MV/s320/flu.JPG" width="313" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Anti-Vaccine attitudes get children killed.</td></tr>
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This post actively causes harm by discouraging people from getting their children vaccinated. If you want to see what DOCTORS say about flu vaccine, visit <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/flu/protect/vaccine/thimerosal.htm">this CDC page</a>.<br /><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiLz1icTRR2IVnthIuhQTjnxJOeF0lBYJwLPyqcg8aGmUNsa9i4KY-9Ufc-QEdScWAdECQ902gwb5Pg3AhrgfGfkZS6cnbrLEeUPv5lIyc1axKfuXb5IyBnnZKRfgjsszlZ1P6RV1dSLWb/s1600/CERN.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="181" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiLz1icTRR2IVnthIuhQTjnxJOeF0lBYJwLPyqcg8aGmUNsa9i4KY-9Ufc-QEdScWAdECQ902gwb5Pg3AhrgfGfkZS6cnbrLEeUPv5lIyc1axKfuXb5IyBnnZKRfgjsszlZ1P6RV1dSLWb/s320/CERN.PNG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">CERN is not making an anti-matter bomb</td></tr>
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Very sensible video until about 6mins in then it starts to fixate on anti-matter, repeatedly saying (accurately) that 1g of antimatter has the energy potential of a nuclear weapon and (also accurately) that CERN has been trying to contain antimatter.<br /><br />
But what is not mentioned (although NSB did not listed to the entire audio) is that the current state of the art is only able to hold about 40 anti-protons, which is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 1 g and according to the <a href="https://www.iop.org/publications/iop/2013/file_59436.pdf">IOP</a> it would take around 100 billion years to produce 1 gram of antimatter.
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWhnw2uLhF8dcAiDFIIA6vNUZqa7rxoHh01b3hCXNUEQKJFsLCXefqS8Gx6fNJ2CyecbfKf5Qlbffpxe_g3qki6Q41aW4hmbNpEx0M7fkLSPZAxHLVhxuDXrv2H4pRG6DtwNHhB5Q7Wkl-/s1600/microwaves+2.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="227" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWhnw2uLhF8dcAiDFIIA6vNUZqa7rxoHh01b3hCXNUEQKJFsLCXefqS8Gx6fNJ2CyecbfKf5Qlbffpxe_g3qki6Q41aW4hmbNpEx0M7fkLSPZAxHLVhxuDXrv2H4pRG6DtwNHhB5Q7Wkl-/s320/microwaves+2.PNG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Microwaves are not particles</td></tr>
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Lots of errors and misinformation here. To take one example,the article says "They use electrically generated electromagnetic energy to make super-fast particles". But microwaves aren't particles. The clue is in the name. Here is a <a href="http://www.arpansa.gov.au/radiationprotection/Factsheets/is_Microwave.cfm">paper</a> that talks quite comprehensively about microwave oven leakage and safety
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Jun 2013<br />
NSB recently read an <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2334337/Gruesome-medieval-utterly-bizarre--leeches-freed-awful-migraines.html">article</a> in MailOnine by TV motoring correspondent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Parker_Bowles">Emma Parker Bowles</a> on her experience using a leeches to cure migraines.<br /><br />
The article (entitled "Gruesome, medieval and utterly bizarre... but leeches freed me from awful migraines") had a number of characteristics consistent with being "psuedoscience". In particular, the following points caught NSB's attention:<br /><br />
<u><b>a) Evidence presented does not relate to the condition at hand (migraines)</b></u><br />
<blockquote>"In the 1980s, leeches began to be used by reconstructive plastic surgeons needing to remove stagnant blood from reattached limbs, to stave off gangrene. But now there are numerous studies into medical uses for leeches. One found that a single session of leeching – the medical application of bloodsucking leeches – can significantly reduce knee pain caused by arthritis for at least two months. Researchers from the University of Duisburg-Essen in Germany claimed improvement levels were comparable to those achieved with daily moderate doses of painkillers such as ibuprofen... The secret is in the leeches’ saliva: it apparently contains a large number of analgesic, anaesthetic, and blood-thinning compounds that tackle pain and inflammation, say the researchers."<br /></blockquote>
But these are differnet applications to those that Bowles was using the leeches for (i.e. to stop migraines). Whereas the clinical uses mentioned relate to the use of leeches directly on the area affected, the procedure Bowles was undertaking involved the placement of leeches on the side of the head where they were separated from the brain by the skull. And, in any case, it is unlikely that Bowles was experiencing a migraine at the time the leeches were applied, so it seems unclear to BFTF exatly what the "analgesic, anaesthetic, and blood-thinning compounds" were supposed to be acting on.<br /><br />
Incidentally, the article does not provide references so BFTF cannot check the cited papers themselves, but the German study may be a follow up to <a href="http://www.uptodate.com/contents/complementary-and-alternative-remedies-in-rheumatic-disorders/abstract/66">this </a>2003 investigation and another <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18484250">study</a> points out that investigations in to leech therapy are difficult to perform as the patients inevitably know whether they are being treated by leeches or by another method : <br /><br />
<blockquote>"Leech therapy can reduce symptoms caused by osteoarthritis. Repeated use of the leeches appears to improve the long-term results. We have not determined whether the positive outcome of the leech therapy is caused by active substances released during the leeching, the placebo effect, or the high expectations placed on this unusual treatment form"<br /><br /></blockquote>
NSB can find no reference in the online medical database <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed">PubMed</a> for the use of leeches to cure migraines. In fact, internet references seem to largely relate to the MainOnline article itself.<br /><br />
So, in summary, there seems to be no evidence for the efficacy of leeches to treat migraines, not is any plausible explanation for their mechanism of action offered.<br /><br />
<u><b>b) Wide ranging claims are made</b></u><br />
It always makes NSB suspicious when wide ranging claims are made with no evidence for their efficacy. In this case, Bowles comments that :<br /><br />
<blockquote>"Google led me to Alicja, a Russian/Polish <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirudo_medicinalis#Medicinal_use">hirudotherapist</a> [leech therapist] with ten years’ experience. She is based in Las Vegas and New York but she has clients from all around the world. She says the secretions from leeches’ saliva can be used to treat the entire spectrum of physiology: blood-clotting, digestion, connective tissue, disease, pain, inhibition of enzymes, and as a treatment for inflammation."<br /><br /></blockquote>
<u><b>c) No evidence that the procedure worked even in this case</b></u><br />
Bowles states that<br /><br />
<blockquote> "I could go for six months without suffering [a migraine], then there would be a whole week of agony" <br /></blockquote><br /><br />
and that she has not had a migraine since the leech therapy. As the leech therapy appears to have been performed this year (2013) and that the date of the article is 1st June, it is not clear that the frequency of migraines has changed for Bowles.<br /><br />
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</div></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-35194553609353824492017-07-09T03:13:00.002-07:002017-07-09T03:16:15.780-07:00Talk : Adventures in the Goldilocks Zone – The Search for Other Earths<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
For May’s Public Lecture Series talk, <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/people/frazer.pearce">Professor Frazer Pearce</a> joins us to discuss "Adventures in the Goldilocks Zone – The Search for Other Earths".
@Gav Squires was there and has kindly written this guest post summarising the event, with some linkage added by NSB.<br /><br />
Jupiter is around a tenth the radius of the Sun. Earth is around a tenth the size of Jupiter. Jupiter is a thousandth the mass of our star while we are three hundredths the mass of Jupiter. An Astronomical Unit (AU) is the distance from the Earth to the Sun. Jupiter is 4 AU away from us and the solar system is around 50 AU in total. <br /><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Solar System Size Comparison</td></tr>
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Eight billion years ago the Sun hadn't yet formed, it was a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protostar">protostar</a>. Close to the star, metals and minerals can condense into planets. As you get further out, you reach the "frost line" . Outside of this, low temperatures allow condensing planets to include things such as H2O, NH3 and CH4. The size of the star determines how far away this frost line is.<br /><br />
Prof Pearce, derived some of the key equations that describe how a planets orbit is related to its mass and speed, these are shown in the image below.
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXe4E7x-fUYiQLarSLRzKZ-FnZo1FVN_NhOWQ3Cv7_Jjep85jfI-TK5fdGpnsWAEFcEgrOIX5qHCMDSnATEb5uzu78zCWQo1oYwVYxaiQq4Lmtx1JYsJTSt4HlwccbM9aeyw37mTAnpGQg/s1600/equations.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="370" data-original-width="491" height="241" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXe4E7x-fUYiQLarSLRzKZ-FnZo1FVN_NhOWQ3Cv7_Jjep85jfI-TK5fdGpnsWAEFcEgrOIX5qHCMDSnATEb5uzu78zCWQo1oYwVYxaiQq4Lmtx1JYsJTSt4HlwccbM9aeyw37mTAnpGQg/s320/equations.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Equations</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
So if energy is added, the planet will move out from the star.<br /><br />
When the Millennium Bridge was built in London, it initially had problems with it swinging in sync with people who were walking across it. This is resonance. It is the reason that soldiers have to break step whenever they cross a bridge.<br /><br />
In our solar system, we can see that close to the Sun there were lots of rocky fragments, then out at the frost line Jupiter formed. After around 70,000 years, Jupiter started to migrate in towards the Sun, getting as close as 1.5AU. Saturn followed it and as it caught up, the two planets became locked in a resonant frequency. This prevented them from migrating in any further. When Jupiter was around 300,000 years old, it started to migrate outward from the Sun and reached its current position around 200,000 years later, thus ending the so called "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis">Great Tack</a>".<br /><br />
This explains a lot about the solar system including why we have so much water here on Earth - Jupiter had brought a lot of the frozen water from around the frost line with it. However, while it may feel like there is a lot of water on Earth, if you balled it all up, it would comfortably fit inside the US. There is still more water than would be expected though. Most comes from Jupiter but there is also some that came from comet bombardment. The grand tack is also the reason that Mars is so small. Mars is only 10% the mass of Earth but Jupiter gobbled up a lot of the stuff that should have been Mars. <br /><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwjBZupjUuJWfNjy0pJVGJDIxxtaLLoEnCE5uFKXVP-JedLl-yFmHiXdj9qJmcfHm4eCSwwH7hPaqlLKFM32r57mu185tdMihTMjLOowN6isDlW-QDQZM1KKjCWj0Q-mf9OgJRiHNoKU85/s1600/Mars%252C_Earth_size_comparison.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="208" data-original-width="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwjBZupjUuJWfNjy0pJVGJDIxxtaLLoEnCE5uFKXVP-JedLl-yFmHiXdj9qJmcfHm4eCSwwH7hPaqlLKFM32r57mu185tdMihTMjLOowN6isDlW-QDQZM1KKjCWj0Q-mf9OgJRiHNoKU85/s1600/Mars%252C_Earth_size_comparison.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Earth- Mars Size Comparison</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
There are two ways to look for an exo-planet. Firstly you can look for its <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_transiting_exoplanets">transit</a> - when the planet passes between a star and us. This will block out some of the light from the start. From this we can measure the period of the planet's orbit and so we can use Kepler's 3rd law, it's possible to work out how far away from the star the planet is. Then it's possible to work out the size of the planet by measuring how much light is blocked. The second way is through <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_spectroscopy">radial velocity variation</a>. The planet and the star both orbit the centre of mass of the system. This means that the planet will cause the star to have a slight "wobble". This can be measured using the Doppler Effect. The bigger the planet, the more the star moves. Using these two methods together, you can work out the density of the planet, which tells us whether it is a rocky planet or not. <br /><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5lQIDCZ6mOrjXs6GZxr52JwLllIjwIcH36sqyhzAxNv2OqWr9LYJUIfJKe_ZhyphenhyphenUno0inpvCOndyLenQToVu5uXitzLCaT4iXRQ5JovEksj0vP1v2xgVGG34pwLaZ27-Pm4Z-zHovoh_Ly/s1600/320px-Kepler_6b.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="213" data-original-width="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5lQIDCZ6mOrjXs6GZxr52JwLllIjwIcH36sqyhzAxNv2OqWr9LYJUIfJKe_ZhyphenhyphenUno0inpvCOndyLenQToVu5uXitzLCaT4iXRQ5JovEksj0vP1v2xgVGG34pwLaZ27-Pm4Z-zHovoh_Ly/s1600/320px-Kepler_6b.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kepler6B photometry - showing light from star being blocked as planet passes in front</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Bigger stars are better. There is a region around a star where water exists in a liquid state. Too near to the star and it boils off. Too far away and it freezes. This is known as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_habitable_zone">Goldilock's zone</a> as it's not too hot, not too cold, but just right. The larger the star, the further away the Goldilock's zone will be. If a planet if 1 AU away from a small star, that would be no good as its water would be frozen. <br /><br />
The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRAPPIST-1">TRAPPIST-1</a> system, 40 light years away, contains 7 Earth-like planets. The star at the heart of the system is a red dwarf and is just a tenth the size of the Sun. The outermost planet is around 0.06 AU from the star and three of them are within the habitable zone. One could even potentially be a similar temperature to Earth. However, large flares from the star make life on the planets highly unlikely. The inner planets are tidally locked, like our moon, meaning that the same side always faces the star. In many ways the system is comparable to Jupiter and its moons. The planets of the TRAPPIST system are all in resonance - the inner most one orbits 12 times for each orbit of the outermost one. <br /><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjk229bpFnm_Tp-D2LgDKAmUMuTUGT-UKF6ITypgjOXk2w6sRqQhuhAxhNJ5P6QBAi7-xt1Su6xOvr1gvOsp3QlBNRSLqDLogT9p0QeTeOeTZH1qF_bd1Zro8ZzzsI8rFIYSJd1ocjZ9qjB/s1600/trappist.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="240" data-original-width="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjk229bpFnm_Tp-D2LgDKAmUMuTUGT-UKF6ITypgjOXk2w6sRqQhuhAxhNJ5P6QBAi7-xt1Su6xOvr1gvOsp3QlBNRSLqDLogT9p0QeTeOeTZH1qF_bd1Zro8ZzzsI8rFIYSJd1ocjZ9qjB/s1600/trappist.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Artist Impression of TRAPPIST -1 System</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
There are planets everywhere! Around 15% of systems contain Earth-like planets, 20% contain super-Earths and 20% contain mini-Neptunes. The next few years will see more missions launched [for example, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transiting_Exoplanet_Survey_Satellite">TESS</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHEOPS">CHEOPS</a>] with the aim of discovering more exo-planets and specifically more Earth-like worlds. Earth itself would be too small to detect using its transit as it is too small to block out enough light. However, future detection techniques will allow the discovery of more planets similar to ours. <br/> <br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFrYgqhjPxFuQOTTERCbngM-c2O04rrhOagjaRmqVEXO7scLM7f-DxEX9SXHRTHY3XHj9G2P94nwQkk45hxUn6YChixL87mxZzvLZWqfcJfm5yy4xZTm_pLgO27f9SvIATtl23gSTcduTf/s1600/astro.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="328" data-original-width="537" height="195" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFrYgqhjPxFuQOTTERCbngM-c2O04rrhOagjaRmqVEXO7scLM7f-DxEX9SXHRTHY3XHj9G2P94nwQkk45hxUn6YChixL87mxZzvLZWqfcJfm5yy4xZTm_pLgO27f9SvIATtl23gSTcduTf/s320/astro.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Professor Frazer Pearce</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br /><br />
<u><b>Related Content:</b></u><br />
<a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.com/2012/12/fee-autobiography.html">Fee- An Autobiography</a></br />
<a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.com/2012/08/curiosity-lands-on-mars.html
">Curiosity, Twitter and the British Connection</a><br />
<a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.com/2012/03/interview-prof-alfonso-aragon-salamanca_05.html">Interview with Prof Aragon-Salamanca</a><br />
<a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.com/2012/02/interview-chris-lintott-and-zooniverse.html">Interview with Prof Chris Lintott</a><br />
<a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.com/2012/01/background-to-space-shuttle.html">Some background to the Space Shuttle</a><br />
<a href="http://nottinghamscience.blogspot.com/2011/12/public-lecture-chris-lintott.html">Lecture by Chris Lintott on 2011 Astronomy highlights</a><br /><br />
<u><b>Image Sources:</u></b><br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Planets2013.svg">Planets</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mars,_Earth_size_comparison.jpg">Earth-Mars comparison</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kepler_6b.png">Kepler6b Transiting light level</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PIA21429_-_Transit_Illustration_of_TRAPPIST-1_(cropped).jpg">TRAPPIST-1 system</a>
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-27461247450722299872017-07-09T00:56:00.001-07:002017-07-09T01:11:25.833-07:00Talk : Arachnoglobia - what makes a spider fly?<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
For April's Cafe Sci talk, <a href="http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/life-sciences/people/sara.goodacre">Dr Sara Goodacre</a>, who is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences at the University of Nottingham (and runs the UoN Spider Lab) gave a talk entitled "Arachnoglobia - what makes a spider fly?"<br /><br />
<a href="https://twitter.com/gavsquires">@Gav Squires</a> was there and has kindly written this guest post summarising the event, with some linkage added by NSB.<br/><br/>
Spiders eat pests. If we could work out how to control their populations then we could end up with a more environmentally friendly world. <br /><br />
The spider family is 400million years old. Spiders have adapted to their world in many ways. Why, and how do these difference help the spider to adapt? In a single species of spider, why does more than type persist? The adaptations that they have are all relative to each other. Even in a single species, different morphs can exist in different parts of the world. To our eyes these morphs look different but they can appear as different again under UV light. In fact, Crab spiders pretend to be nectar to catch bees. This effect can only be seen in UV but it works because bees see in UV.<br /><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnPIhpGUlAUCNwme2lGHfpyGa9njxSJ-Xp1GXoyr5TnCRbwO5gf63q8tLA2PuYHWFTvWG0b8wAt922g8jPH3B9g5XD7JCSs9BTKgDgc4HumYVmJF2vx8mShb4eOqDiNfueVea9wKYppBzY/s1600/CrabSpider.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="235" data-original-width="314" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnPIhpGUlAUCNwme2lGHfpyGa9njxSJ-Xp1GXoyr5TnCRbwO5gf63q8tLA2PuYHWFTvWG0b8wAt922g8jPH3B9g5XD7JCSs9BTKgDgc4HumYVmJF2vx8mShb4eOqDiNfueVea9wKYppBzY/s1600/CrabSpider.JPG" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Crab Spider about to spoil a bees day</td></tr>
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<br />
In some cases, spiders are finding the same solutions to survival - some can have the same shape for a completely different genus. Co-operation can also solve some problems. Some spiders live in groups and they live in perfect harmony with each other. We've seen this in 9 species of spider, which is impressive but there are 40,000 types of spiders in the world. Those that do live in close family groups end up inbreeding. However, after 9-10million years of this, there appear to be no adverse effects. There is also a huge female bias when it comes to spiders in group living conditions. <br /><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGH0tnx_r7hMw6zEXRLDhRnQZdz23EJH6VDXgI_SMKt0UOsTjcfFa4L6MvK3NxWZmJgMZMPQA4ZB4OaSzifhZE5NkSFTLR7GfrTme6XRxAZJXDrOmHkVHIKgRwzJLUN43E9ZfvaL8qYI2k/s1600/social-spider.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="363" data-original-width="417" height="277" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGH0tnx_r7hMw6zEXRLDhRnQZdz23EJH6VDXgI_SMKt0UOsTjcfFa4L6MvK3NxWZmJgMZMPQA4ZB4OaSzifhZE5NkSFTLR7GfrTme6XRxAZJXDrOmHkVHIKgRwzJLUN43E9ZfvaL8qYI2k/s320/social-spider.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Social Spiders</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Being able to move long distances also helps. Lingphiids are common in disturbed, agricultural environments. Many are capable of dispersing long distances by spinning out a line of silk and using it to take off. This is how they can end up on a farmer's field even after they have sprayed pesticide. You can find around 100 spiders in the space the size of an average table and they eat 25 times their body weight in pests every week. Spiders are 1000 times more impacted by insecticide than whatever you're trying to kill. How many of these flying spiders carry resistance to pesticides with them?<br /><br />
At any time, 40-60% of spiders will attempt to take off. This achieves optimum balance between rates of extinction and recolonization. After a new island emerges from the sea, spiders are often the first animals on it and birds in places like Svalbard partially rely on flying spiders arriving as a source of food. Prior to take-off, 1.5m of silky sail is spun out. The spider cannot control how high they go or where they end up. Spiders can't propel their silk out, it has to be reeled out instead. Most species of spider eventually get too big to be able to fly. Money spiders can fly throughout their lives though. Spiders can fly up to 70km in just 10 hours. <br /><br />
Why is dispersal so important? Professor Godfrey Hewitt said "Global climate has fluctuated greatly during the past three million years, leading to the recent major ices ages. An inescapable consequence for most living organisms is great changes in their distribution. Such range changes can be expected to have genetic consequences."<br /><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhKDZVWqnpXmc9_ZwX8MQp0m1hmXijRGiIxV-KDDiWeOVZUqHqf24haJTJmTNhHlGVd8NZZ0iYaeQFjNyyJ36CO9KbMYclwKOQyXbnOKm7r-TWl8FhBikOkVrMCJpfeam2ehyXVpklT31a/s1600/Artificial_Spider_Silk_Strand.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhKDZVWqnpXmc9_ZwX8MQp0m1hmXijRGiIxV-KDDiWeOVZUqHqf24haJTJmTNhHlGVd8NZZ0iYaeQFjNyyJ36CO9KbMYclwKOQyXbnOKm7r-TWl8FhBikOkVrMCJpfeam2ehyXVpklT31a/s400/Artificial_Spider_Silk_Strand.JPG" height="320" width="198"></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Single filament of synthetic spider silk</td></tr>
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What drives the different dispersal strategies? What is the relationship between dispersal, gene flow and local adaptation?<br /><br />
Risk avoidance on the part of the spider is not the only factor determining when it flies. It has been discovered that spiders carry particular bacterial infections that are known to influence the biology of other hosts. For example, in butterflies, this Wolbachia bacteria results in a female biased sex ratio, meaning that the females have to compete for males. In woodlice, genetic males develop as females but other males prefer real females over feminised males. In other creatures, infected females aggregate offspring, thereby promoting sibling mating and inbreeding. The bacteria affects higher brain function. <br /><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMx7arpLwciy5Jil-HU1-Eep6FQDgPee04kTY5g3B8n3Uqh7g-ywEOD-2AFPdjeyxlDs-UCxpMTlnDZEpQlO3_oF9ZoRM3bn3MLwuNb5WjYf-ekzH9uFMGPavzMVsGojxSmz9dmsN6el-f/s1600/adaptations.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="256" data-original-width="428" height="191" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMx7arpLwciy5Jil-HU1-Eep6FQDgPee04kTY5g3B8n3Uqh7g-ywEOD-2AFPdjeyxlDs-UCxpMTlnDZEpQlO3_oF9ZoRM3bn3MLwuNb5WjYf-ekzH9uFMGPavzMVsGojxSmz9dmsN6el-f/s320/adaptations.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Example of Spider Adaptations</td></tr>
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<br />
How can we determine the effects of bacterial infection in spiders? We can cure the spiders with antibiotics and then see what happens to the behaviour of the "cured" spiders. Of course this isn't as straightforward as it sounds - what is the right dose of antibiotic for something as small as a spider? It turns out that spiders are more likely to fly if they have been cured. So, the bacteria see to influence whether or not a spider will fly. Around 2/3 of invertebrate creepy crawlies have this bacteria. <br /><br />
Spiders that can fly are also good sailors. This is how they can travel much further than we initially thought. Some spiders can even stand on water. These are a subset of the sailors, who are a subset of the flyers. The spiders that can fly but can't sail might be in trouble if they land on water. There are even some spiders that can survive submerged for up to a week. However, many spiders can drown in a raindrop.<br /><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjs0dTamKjxc941TmKbf3bLrLT5wGT1vxcliKFuJc5zRfq6j4gPoRDBklFdFrUge9jfMcruMkHEoxvj3HnlbqvImffkfbVpNg56-Ia5YKvopJAYz6XYQa6Ls_ukpkCEuFqvWpsGRPAdhLRY/s1600/map.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjs0dTamKjxc941TmKbf3bLrLT5wGT1vxcliKFuJc5zRfq6j4gPoRDBklFdFrUge9jfMcruMkHEoxvj3HnlbqvImffkfbVpNg56-Ia5YKvopJAYz6XYQa6Ls_ukpkCEuFqvWpsGRPAdhLRY/s1600/map.JPG" height="263" width="320"></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Spider Distribution Map at BAS</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
We then move onto a slightly more general chat about spiders. There are very few spiders that are actually dangerous to humans. There is Brazilian wandering spider that uses neurotoxin but most spiders don't have that kind of venom. Very few cases globally of a long term harm from a Sydney funnel web. There have only been two reports of "Fake Widow" attacks, despite all the coverage that they have received in the press. One was a sore arm for an afternoon in Worthing in 1991. One was a sore leg in south France in 2003. However, you are still better not touching spiders abroad but there are no harmful spiders in the UK.<br /><br />
Many people think that conkers can be used to keep spiders away but they do nothing. If anything a spider just sees a conker as something else to hide under. Most spiders can mate twice in quick succession. Sometimes a male spider is half-eaten, mates again and then she eats the rest of him. The hairs on a spider's foot that let it climb glass are thinner than a human chromosome.<br /><br />
In conclusion, natural selection shapes traits such as ability to survive encounters with water and aerial dispersal tendency. A small proportion of individuals is capable of moving over distances far greater than previously imagined because aerial dispersers are able to survive encounters with water. <br /><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiVLuBhlL4i7QpdjyfYVMiK7If0Ae0j-9SOxKFVPyOtBCch6tycKBHc_rNiXxp60Cukl0TDBAoMUGPAQp7B4QpJp81XsdOkSdbscbrfX2SM5pZd4xb9IW3wlHdRtAJzwwzBd7U0It3T0Wbs/s1600/dr+goodacre.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="269" data-original-width="194" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiVLuBhlL4i7QpdjyfYVMiK7If0Ae0j-9SOxKFVPyOtBCch6tycKBHc_rNiXxp60Cukl0TDBAoMUGPAQp7B4QpJp81XsdOkSdbscbrfX2SM5pZd4xb9IW3wlHdRtAJzwwzBd7U0It3T0Wbs/s1600/dr+goodacre.JPG" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dr Sara Goodacre</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Café Sci returns to The Vat & Fiddle after its summer hiatus on the 9th of October where Mike Merrifield will talk about Exoplanets. For more information, check out the Café Sci MeetUp site: https://www.meetup.com/nottingham-culture-cafe-sci/<br /><br />
<u><b>Image Sources</u></b><br/>
<a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Spider_and_bee_June_2008-1.jpg/320px-Spider_and_bee_June_2008-1.jpg">Crab Spider</a>,
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2007-social-spider-1.jpg">Social Spider</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikipedia_Kevlar_Silk_Comparison.jpg">Spider silk comparison</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Artificial_Spider_Silk_Strand.JPG">Silk strand</a>
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-58898903638119050172017-05-29T17:40:00.003-07:002017-05-29T17:40:57.874-07:00Talk : When the Uncertainty Principle Goes up to 11<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
For April's Uni of Nottingham Public Science Lecture, <a href="http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/people/philip.moriarty">Professor Philip Moriarty</a> from the School of Physics & Astronomy at the University Nottingham talked about "When the Uncertainty Principle Goes up to 11".<br /><br />
<a href="https://twitter.com/gavsquires">@Gav Squires</a> was there and has kindly written this guest post summarising the event, with some linkage added by NSB.<br/><br/>
There is a deep and fundamental link between quantum physics and heavy metal. This is a real thing unlike the huge industry that people like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepak_Chopra">Deepak Chopra</a> have built up around quantum woo, trying to link eastern mysticism and quantum physics. Despite what Deepak and his ilk will have you believe, we actually understand quantum physics remarkably well - it is a theory of waves. We don't know what those waves mean yet but we can do the mathematics behind them. At the minute, there are around twenty interpretations of quantum mechanics. As Richard Feynman said, "if you think you understand quantum mechanics, you don’t".<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIaZiuyvk17hXhOyKgfZ-XM55oTCNvQ4SJzy73-KFHs9JUrkOlMYUM73Kf0vAm4gyM9in5saeVlNd9EUGBPBroDskfvz1HLUD3mx2x2wI7HlOYACM9XRosk95dQcsRnPL7WarawSTI5T7h/s1600/bands.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="357" data-original-width="417" height="170" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIaZiuyvk17hXhOyKgfZ-XM55oTCNvQ4SJzy73-KFHs9JUrkOlMYUM73Kf0vAm4gyM9in5saeVlNd9EUGBPBroDskfvz1HLUD3mx2x2wI7HlOYACM9XRosk95dQcsRnPL7WarawSTI5T7h/s200/bands.JPG" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Metal Bands and Physics</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Heavy metal is not considered to be the most cerebral of genres but there are a number of bands that are embedding science themes in their music. <a href="http://users.ox.ac.uk/~donc0074/">David Robert Grimes</a>, from Oxford University, has <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2014-07-24-physics-lead-guitar-playing">written a paper</a> on string-bending and there is also a published paper entitled, "<a href="http://www.lassp.cornell.edu/sethna/pubPDF/MoshPits.pdf">Collective Motion of Humans in Mosh and Circle Pits at Heavy Metal Concerts</a>" (it turns out that the people behave in exactly the same way as molecules in a box) So, scientists are already writing about the physics of music. Mathematician <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhem von Leibniz</a> (1646-1716) even said, "music is the pleasure that the human mind experiences from counting without being aware that it is counting" There is an equivalence between fractions and musical notation such as quavers, semi-quavers etc. Musical theory is based around the concept of intervals - thirds, fourths, fifths, octaves. Music has notations and maths has notation and we can simplify both of them.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZ4m4Wm8H0Eh_BktpMDaSPTmckl8hwo37FcyPVbqVNa1sygQqEwKQHv-EnarwIjoVo4BEkZaK6md06Q9lV-Uya8uZ6uPvadszA2xLZ73yBB6elqFAYoB_f_XBCcZbE7aP1ddXQYNMcUGGS/s1600/moriarty.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="253" data-original-width="310" height="163" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZ4m4Wm8H0Eh_BktpMDaSPTmckl8hwo37FcyPVbqVNa1sygQqEwKQHv-EnarwIjoVo4BEkZaK6md06Q9lV-Uya8uZ6uPvadszA2xLZ73yBB6elqFAYoB_f_XBCcZbE7aP1ddXQYNMcUGGS/s200/moriarty.JPG" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Moriarty playing the guitar</td></tr>
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We can use our knowledge of waves in the real world to tell us about the quantum world. If we confine a particle to a finite space it will have a wave like characteristic. This is similar to a guitar string. What happens when a wave can't propagate? It reflects. With two nodes, you get very simple waves where it doesn't vibrate rather than the mess that you might expect. A low note has a low wavelength, while a high note has a higher pitch and a higher rate of oscillation.<br/><br/>
Why does an "E" on piano sound nothing like an "E" on guitar? It's the harmonics. If every wave produced just looked like a standard sine wave you wouldn't be able to tell the difference between different instruments. The real waves are much more complex, even though they are still regular and repeating. Whistling is a lot more similar to a "standard" sine wave.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqrwaaFtHk8YuoAWnJB8rPm92uLceUWBSMNPE0YmQ6dKVSGAusFcFJm_DqyLG4QPTkkIu1u9lV9MaNDn5jeZsQp7UIA-8yGkHdiRRS-pSoU5Jq12abs85lM8j4LyMZHoI9HHFMKTSIYIir/s1600/standing+wave.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="242" data-original-width="256" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqrwaaFtHk8YuoAWnJB8rPm92uLceUWBSMNPE0YmQ6dKVSGAusFcFJm_DqyLG4QPTkkIu1u9lV9MaNDn5jeZsQp7UIA-8yGkHdiRRS-pSoU5Jq12abs85lM8j4LyMZHoI9HHFMKTSIYIir/s1600/standing+wave.JPG" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Different Harmonics possible with a single string</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrO4pNMHyUQLSg8zb68VbaibPgpMa4fvdPMXHUpEGpIXVW9Bsvd2f234cbz-bqYEYhYq7hTZ7KZQsiRfEGBMIO1uA6zlMJ5Gbuy3a2ZcfTWS-4v4kN5gqr5bEl6Sl8uoXnbC7Qjlr29lDP/s1600/Standing_wave.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="250" data-original-width="750" height="106" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrO4pNMHyUQLSg8zb68VbaibPgpMa4fvdPMXHUpEGpIXVW9Bsvd2f234cbz-bqYEYhYq7hTZ7KZQsiRfEGBMIO1uA6zlMJ5Gbuy3a2ZcfTWS-4v4kN5gqr5bEl6Sl8uoXnbC7Qjlr29lDP/s320/Standing_wave.gif" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">How a harmonic may oscillate</td></tr>
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The amplitude is the period of a wave, how many times it repeats per second. The frequency can be represented as 1/T, where T is the amplitude. This is "reciprocal time" - converting from one quantity to its reciprocal is incredibly important in physics. The frequency will change with the pitch. On a guitar, there are multiple spikes even with just one note, so we know we have a range of frequencies. <br/><br/>
You can get any pattern that is relevant in the real world by adding together different sine waves. As Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier said, "mathematics compares the most diverse phenomena and discovers the secret analogies that unite them." The guitar string can vibrate in a number of ways. However, we always know that it has two nodes. By adding your finger to the string at a node, you can dampen out any waves (harmonics) that don't have a node at that point.<br/><br/>
With particles and waves, you're looking at localised versus delocalised. When an electron moves on silver you get standing waves, just like with guitars. These days it is child's play to manipulate individual atoms on a surface, you can just point and click. Electrons create waves but rather than these being actual waves, they are probability waves, all to do with the probability that you will find an electron. If you create a string of iron atoms and then look at the distribution of the electrons then you can see that the same ideas that we have on a guitar string can be ported down to this level.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwyZdZzxkCZvBAhnwiAtqO9wAUYk76XScvRS6C_QATcDIoHaLJwWdOtLlcmoxPhIJYTQbT3UTGA2GbZIx3a0aIqSmmL5taHvjjr8VHb1rAsHBRByeu2VkcEwCLiyKYyrgePSdob5HmmTAa/s1600/silver.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="419" data-original-width="450" height="297" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwyZdZzxkCZvBAhnwiAtqO9wAUYk76XScvRS6C_QATcDIoHaLJwWdOtLlcmoxPhIJYTQbT3UTGA2GbZIx3a0aIqSmmL5taHvjjr8VHb1rAsHBRByeu2VkcEwCLiyKYyrgePSdob5HmmTAa/s320/silver.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Electron Waves </td></tr>
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<br />
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle has been incredibly mis-interpreted throughout the years, not least by Heisenberg himself. You could say he was uncertain of how it worked! It is different from the observer effect, where if you interact with a system then you change the evolution of the system. Anything can be an observer - in the famous case of Schrödinger's Cat, even the box is an observer, so the cat has been observed long before you actually open the box. We see the Uncertainty Principle all the time in the real world.<br/><br/>
For example, when you mute a guitar string with your palm. If you look at the peak for the fundamental - the lowest frequency peak, it is wide in time but narrow in frequency. By muting the string with your palm, you get narrow in time but wide in frequency. This comes from classical physics but it is the Uncertainty principle.<br/><br/>
You can also have a spatial frequency - number of stripes per metre. Then you look at the reciprocal space - how often does it repeat? This ties back in with momentum in the Uncertainty Principle. High definition means high spatial frequencies, while a narrow spectrum gives much greater uncertainty in space.<br/><br/>
The Public Lecture Series returns on May the 18th where Professor Frazer Pearce will be talking about Adventures In The Goldilocks' Zone - The Search For Other Earths. For more information visit the website: www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/outreach/science-public-lectures.aspx<br/><br/>
<u><b>Image Sources </u></b><br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Standing_waves_on_a_string.gif">Standing Waves</a>, Others by Gav Squires.<br />
</span></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-10915610858366070412017-04-30T14:36:00.000-07:002017-04-30T14:38:28.640-07:00Newark Air Museum<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
Visited <a href="http://www.airshowspresent.com/newark-air-museum.html">Newark Air Museu</a>m with Mrs NSB and No3 Son to take advantage of BBC East Midlands "<a href="http://www.nottinghampost.com/big-day-out-2017-these-nottinghamshire-tourist-attractions-are-all-offering-free-entry-tomorrow/story-30292923-detail/story.html">Big Day Out</a>" event.<br /><br/>
Well worth visiting, we all got to sit inside the (cramped) cockpit of an Avro Vulcan, and No3 Son also got to sit in a Canberra cockpit. Volunteers who explained about the planes really added a lot of value to the Museum and are not something NSB has seen similarly elsewhere. <br /><br/>
A few pictures...<br /><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqiQShNBiYYNh6rVdlz_J0CvCCkcwShIeEgj9IWG282eGkiIYoWZE2PeSwnaw_IZXC72XkIl3fzQB9_XeP7kIM_tmvawqQpG27NbaQ1ok7YsQM8pMmNCZmcCqB0UStq2n-8XqqZbq8w883/s1600/Bristol+Hercules.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqiQShNBiYYNh6rVdlz_J0CvCCkcwShIeEgj9IWG282eGkiIYoWZE2PeSwnaw_IZXC72XkIl3fzQB9_XeP7kIM_tmvawqQpG27NbaQ1ok7YsQM8pMmNCZmcCqB0UStq2n-8XqqZbq8w883/s320/Bristol+Hercules.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">NSB's words on seeing this Bristol Hercules ; "Look at that engine, Phwoar!"</td></tr>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEhSrDYXAh68frXvLTGcsAGxfVxAigGGprwQLRI-g0r2trfm946jpSdholfhoMbWh-dMv23KYgurEXF4fZITq6li1BwOvPJ6u9S2sX8lMPhJxF0z-4YfV0IbEENXkjSns9aIADLa5ul1jH/s1600/Fairey+Gannet.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="215" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEhSrDYXAh68frXvLTGcsAGxfVxAigGGprwQLRI-g0r2trfm946jpSdholfhoMbWh-dMv23KYgurEXF4fZITq6li1BwOvPJ6u9S2sX8lMPhJxF0z-4YfV0IbEENXkjSns9aIADLa5ul1jH/s320/Fairey+Gannet.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Fairy Gannet - A reason for mandatory drug testing of aircraft designers?</td></tr>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipR-SAC0KFdkrmm-6XjOwURTsznyOwaTSjO6_EvcW0SoOOCH_SlymGQKPRY5trvy2GpMDcqhpSC58889zcsFolszkoZwVp6MpV_zOkmwGLm_gAJg6xL8piXtKvWyueRqBR_E3hCIDvAHbV/s1600/hunter2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="172" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipR-SAC0KFdkrmm-6XjOwURTsznyOwaTSjO6_EvcW0SoOOCH_SlymGQKPRY5trvy2GpMDcqhpSC58889zcsFolszkoZwVp6MpV_zOkmwGLm_gAJg6xL8piXtKvWyueRqBR_E3hCIDvAHbV/s320/hunter2.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Effortlessly beautiful Hawker Hunter </td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimDisB3ZGhn9LdL8EGv7dFtCbtJhRk7WZ50_SADUl1VW6EPvq7TJq3G73Kh-Sru8AhORQzEXUHi5iO5bkAfILAc3E9ynKDDms6MD_KdhHE17tdu3_mVKjTAzDoCPWkM_W-VrS092c_K8qx/s1600/mig27.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="177" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimDisB3ZGhn9LdL8EGv7dFtCbtJhRk7WZ50_SADUl1VW6EPvq7TJq3G73Kh-Sru8AhORQzEXUHi5iO5bkAfILAc3E9ynKDDms6MD_KdhHE17tdu3_mVKjTAzDoCPWkM_W-VrS092c_K8qx/s320/mig27.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Spats on this Mig-27 make it look like a Transformer!</td></tr>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipt34qpMCQWSmTBWPRqllQSTjCAe3tsQO5LaynCouqOzt2fTshx5kP4XfDXCn760mjma6DL1MqywwyXN9TvvmLwgZ55uSlt4FVhXo37fZFuYSZe2xXoCg1ZxFXvoOM-OyToudlwALC43mB/s1600/Viggen.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="199" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipt34qpMCQWSmTBWPRqllQSTjCAe3tsQO5LaynCouqOzt2fTshx5kP4XfDXCn760mjma6DL1MqywwyXN9TvvmLwgZ55uSlt4FVhXo37fZFuYSZe2xXoCg1ZxFXvoOM-OyToudlwALC43mB/s320/Viggen.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Unexpectedly curvy Viggen fuselage</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipbk0UV4YGOnQc1UfZDp_Zsodg_cD-11ZD_h4ZtmIp-2Z25J86ncJ0HIHv0kmmOVOSpsbF7B9d400etGou35h5b8vSxa1BWAPLs9DYtYrFT0BxNx6ZWR4MVqe2eLBXwSHlX_qtWpzdrPwL/s1600/Yellow+Sun.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="222" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipbk0UV4YGOnQc1UfZDp_Zsodg_cD-11ZD_h4ZtmIp-2Z25J86ncJ0HIHv0kmmOVOSpsbF7B9d400etGou35h5b8vSxa1BWAPLs9DYtYrFT0BxNx6ZWR4MVqe2eLBXwSHlX_qtWpzdrPwL/s320/Yellow+Sun.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Yellow Sun nuclear bomb. Equivalent to 26 Hiroshimas.<br />Frightening times</td></tr>
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</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-52689167417400655462017-04-25T17:42:00.004-07:002017-04-30T10:54:00.556-07:00Talk : Food Allergies: What Are They? Why Do We Have Them?<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
For April's Cafe Sci, <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/biosciences/people/marcos.alcocer">Dr Marcos Alcocer</a> from the School of Biosciences at the University Nottingham comes to talk about Food Allergies: What Are They? Why Do We Have Them?. <a href="https://twitter.com/gavsquires">@Gav Squires</a> was there and has kindly written this guest post summarising the event, with some linkage added by NSB.<br/><br/>
With the end of our own vegetable gardens, in our industrialised world, not everything is under our control any more. These days, wherever you go, it's almost a "fashion" to have a good allergy. These adverse reactions to food can range from dizziness, itching, vomiting to diarrhoea. Non-toxic reactions to food can include the enzymatic (e.g. intolerance to lactose, alcohol, galactosemia) or pharmacological (e.g. intolerance to caffeine, acids, tyramine alkaloids, histamine, monosodium glutamate, salicylates or benzoates).<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2pdISkakURUY1Jfs9yeljM7bMrhXnEcVF3VreWsLwl5DUwBGQ-TcEpti8l7GVie6k6FD6eJYU-t3nQ3zxOxZb9MIJdCQ0K6zNRC_aHTgM0iKHrT2nuquc1J9WnPbmQV4Bqwn2T-LYHGl2/s1600/640px-Histamine_3D_ball.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="230" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2pdISkakURUY1Jfs9yeljM7bMrhXnEcVF3VreWsLwl5DUwBGQ-TcEpti8l7GVie6k6FD6eJYU-t3nQ3zxOxZb9MIJdCQ0K6zNRC_aHTgM0iKHrT2nuquc1J9WnPbmQV4Bqwn2T-LYHGl2/s320/640px-Histamine_3D_ball.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Histamine</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Food hypersensitivity can also be immune related and can kill you, unlike something like lactose intolerance, which is just upsetting and painful. Food allergy is immunity going wrong, it recognises things in food as being toxic. In our gut, we have a "sampling device" and everything that we eat is sampled and checked with the immune system. In most of the cases the immune system doesn't respond but if it sees a problem then it activates.<br/><br/>
The first time that you encounter an allergen, your body will produce antibodies. For example, for peanuts it will recognise one of the proteins in the peanuts. Cells will now be loaded with antibodies and when these recognise future instances of that allergen, histamines are released. Amongst other things, Histamine causes dilation of blood vessels (reducing blood pressure) and bronchial tubes (which results in difficulty in breathing). In extreme cases this can result in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphylaxis">anaphylactic shock</a>.<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEguB9K8qVCoEZD5j4vRgWKkts9JuYVx0IMLgS0fDBtBoaR3sMTMGTUuU87Nrp__GcDV5KMsFL2mmAbfU0DJ3U3JzDk0PZBSDT6C2e615YRv6bViiYMdxLRDVswVvXH3JcrtZskR0kevK9mf/s1600/640px-Antibody_IgG2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="234" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEguB9K8qVCoEZD5j4vRgWKkts9JuYVx0IMLgS0fDBtBoaR3sMTMGTUuU87Nrp__GcDV5KMsFL2mmAbfU0DJ3U3JzDk0PZBSDT6C2e615YRv6bViiYMdxLRDVswVvXH3JcrtZskR0kevK9mf/s320/640px-Antibody_IgG2.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Structure of an allergy antibody </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
It is impossible for your GP to tell you what you are actually allergic to just from your symptoms as they bear no relation to the food that actually caused them. The first paper on food allergies was only published relatively recently - we are only just starting to make the connections. So, while they seem to be a modern fad, they have always been around but people didn't realise what they were.<br/><br/>
There were 37 fatalities in the UK between 1992 and 1998:<br/><br/>
Peanut - 10<br/>
Nuts - 10<br/>
Walnut - 5<br/>
Uncertain - 4<br/>
Seafood - 3<br/>
Milk - 2<br/>
Chickpea - 1<br/>
Nectarine - 1<br/>
Banana - 1<br/><br/>
We also have the breakdown of where they ate the food that killed them:<br/><br/>
Restaurant/Bar - 13<br/>
Take-away - 6<br/>
Home - 6<br/>
Other - 5<br/>
Canteen - 3<br/>
School - 2<br/>
Party food - 2<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyZNusa7ws3Oz9wTME47COp7gWkThz7sB7t9ATi7iuJzicZqwT7qxnNlbmahngdAwF2jY2i9qHS9VptkUIrdJYPFk98mCHQJgX0FbBqQjGSZzLIBc1on_p2H20sbmF5ALKzAL17cbmRDhU/s1600/320px-Peanutjar.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyZNusa7ws3Oz9wTME47COp7gWkThz7sB7t9ATi7iuJzicZqwT7qxnNlbmahngdAwF2jY2i9qHS9VptkUIrdJYPFk98mCHQJgX0FbBqQjGSZzLIBc1on_p2H20sbmF5ALKzAL17cbmRDhU/s1600/320px-Peanutjar.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Roasted Peanuts</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Is the prevalence increasing? Yes, it is, but there are problems with the data acquisition. Between 0 and 4 years old, there is a massive incidence of food allergy but most people grow out of it. So, should mothers avoid eating foods that contain allergens while pregnant or while breast feeding? Should parents delay feeding solid food? We don't know. However, there does appear to be one very clear, three-month window between 3 and 6 months in which to make children tolerant.<br/><br/>
Atopy, which is inherited hypersensitivity, is increasing. One of the more popular hypothesises about why this is happening is the hygiene hypothesis - the cleaner that you are the more at risk you are. The theory being that too much cleaning can create an immune system that is not used to real life. For example, studies were done in East and West Germany when they were still separate counties. In clean, modern West Germany, atopy rates were 37%, whereas in East Germany they were just 17%.<br/><br/>
However, there are other risk factors, such as geography/environment and genetics. For example, Jewish children in the UK were 10 times more likely to suffer from food allergies than those from the same family when they were still in Israel.<br/><br/>
There is also a hypothesis that looks at gut microbiotica. Variety of species in the gut is a good indicator of gut health - the more, the better. Allergens react to the bacteria in the gut. We can test this hypothesis by transferring faeces from one animal to another.<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpZaS4FF_LzLUK-jEvhWdehxGPetdxfwxqb3Td2yUsfbAgRFXkbfuJrLw0nKmDvJWE8qEv1DSZc9Vv2x2I8CBd8b-2XgTlw5rRKY4AOSQYy3USFpqxGbbU25D_-wJxeHXcvONgGcTDlQUy/s1600/571px-EscherichiaColi_NIAID.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="269" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpZaS4FF_LzLUK-jEvhWdehxGPetdxfwxqb3Td2yUsfbAgRFXkbfuJrLw0nKmDvJWE8qEv1DSZc9Vv2x2I8CBd8b-2XgTlw5rRKY4AOSQYy3USFpqxGbbU25D_-wJxeHXcvONgGcTDlQUy/s320/571px-EscherichiaColi_NIAID.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Gut Bacteria</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
What makes an allergen is not well defined - why is one protein an allergen and another not? For example in a Brazil nut, there is one protein that causes a reaction but in a peanut, it can be one of 16.<br/><br/>
In the last 10 years, technology advances have allowed us to sequence everything. We can sequence peanut proteins and so we can tell if people will cross-react. Scandinavians and Southern Europeans are both often allergic to apples. However, it is a different protein that causes the reaction. Scandinavians actually get their allergy from Birch trees, which contain the a protein that is also found in apples. The problem with sampling is the time that it takes. A human has around 100,000 proteins but wheat is eight times more complex.<br/><br/>
Despite, all of the research, we don't have a cure yet. The only treatment is an adrenaline shot, that will keep you alive for enough time to get to the hospital.<br/><br/>
Café Sci returns to The Vat & Fiddle on the 8th of May at 8:00 where Sara Goodacre will talk on Arachnoglobia: Long Journeys by 8-Legged Travellers & Other Stories. For more information, check out the Café Sci MeetUp page - <a href="https://www.meetup.com/nottingham-culture-cafe-sci/">https://www.meetup.com/nottingham-culture-cafe-sci/</a><br/><br/>
<Image Sources><br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Histamine_3D_ball.png">Histamine</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antibody_IgG2.png">Antibody</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EscherichiaColi_NIAID.jpg">Gut Bacteria</a><br /><br/ >
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-23640970158988740572017-04-02T09:18:00.001-07:002017-04-02T09:18:19.782-07:00Talk - Bits And Bytes - When Horses Meet Computers<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">For March's <a href="http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/outreach/science-public-lectures.aspx">University of Nottingham Public Lecture Series</a> talk, <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/mandy.roshier">Dr Mandy Roshier</a>, from the School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, and <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/computerscience/people/steve.north">Dr Steve North</a>, from the School of Computer Science, join forces to talk about Bits And Bytes - When Horses Meet Computers. <a href="https://twitter.com/gavsquires">@Gav Squires</a> was there and has kindly written this guest post summarising the event, with some linkage added by NSB.<br/><br/>
Mandy and Steve are looking at how horses feel and what they want, using computers to measure their behaviour in an objective manner so that we can improve our understanding and the horses' welfare. <br/><br/>
The research has focused on animal-computer interaction. Animals have interacted with our technology throughout human history and they now interact with our computer-based systems, whether they know it or not. The lack of an animal perspective on system design can have a negative effect on both animal users and the purpose for which the technology was developed. Animal-computer interaction is a recent field of study and is still very small.<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRYQSk4-6rlCWiPlExfq5GzTJGvv70XgzfQRgkemh5t7XtF2JMHz_SO5l6RlOivkDghR-cdyezuybZDkyWTzX2kXFnXKg3A1IyuM4Ue1x6ta5mZ73jKl1FGIgqE31rN_X0Zcp4dgvIWY9A/s1600/horse+motion.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="171" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRYQSk4-6rlCWiPlExfq5GzTJGvv70XgzfQRgkemh5t7XtF2JMHz_SO5l6RlOivkDghR-cdyezuybZDkyWTzX2kXFnXKg3A1IyuM4Ue1x6ta5mZ73jKl1FGIgqE31rN_X0Zcp4dgvIWY9A/s320/horse+motion.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Prehistoric and more recent attempts at depicting horse motion</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
However, horses have been interacting with our technology for a long time. Before 4000BCE, horses were only used as food for humans. Then between 4000-3000BCE, humans started to use horses for traction and transport. While we still ate horses during this period, this was the beginning of horses having to interact with our technology. These were "hard" technologies, the saddle, bridle, reigns, bit, halter, whip, working collar, harness, chariot, cart and plough. Then there was the most significant development - the "hot shod" horse shoe. As the horse enable humans to travel great distances, trade, carry cargo and share culture and language, it could be argued that the horse was a primary driver of human technological development.<br/><br/>
Horse-computer interaction can include environmental, physical training, health and sport performance analysis and more general health such as pregnancy monitors and web cams. Some of these techniques can be invasive. However, touch screen computers are changing the way that scientists carry out equine research as they can take out the risk of human influence in equine decision making and actions. There is also the Aktiv stable, which controls a horse's environment. Microchips attached to the horse control feeding, watering and social interaction between horses. There are benefits to the horse in that it allows a more natural lifestyle but it reduces human interaction.<br/><br/>
How do horses respond to their environment? How does this differ between sports horses, those just kept in regular stables and feral horses? (there are no such thing as wild horses, only feral) Behaviour is a part of welfare, although it is one that vets can often overlook in favour of the physiological side of animal care. In the 70s, the Animal Welfare Council came up with their five freedoms, which included a reference to behaviour:<br/><br/>
* Freedom from hunger and thirst<br/>
* Freedom from discomfort<br/>
* Freedom from pain, injury and disease<br/>
* Freedom to express normal behaviour<br/>
* Freedom from fear and distress<br/><br/>
Animal research can include psychology (the study of the mind), ethology (the study of behaviour) and physiology (for example measuring something like cortisol levels) The physiology and the ethology need to be considered together so that you can tell whether a rise in cortisol levels is due to increased stress or increased excitement for example. Within these three areas, you can record observable actions and interpret them. Computers help here as they can cope with large levels of data. This has led to research such as <a href="http://www.equifacs.co.uk/">EquiFACS</a>, which looks at equine anatomy by recording minute movements of muscle. This initially started by looking at humans but has moved on to other animals. Similarly, the <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0092281">Horse Grimace Scale</a> was born from research that started with rodents but now looks at a way of measuring how much pain a horse is in. Meanwhile equine motion has fascinated us for years, from the earliest cave paintings to the present day.<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJeh1biUbKFuAjKPWkRFB5IuvhXxtRElDwRATLiJBNM3s1rbwNsHqdZcImD6xIAlxMa0PZ7weOYjqay4UyLo-iUy5hMLKalXLqkI94JmEFT1fY7pxtGux87vuKCXVYAEc8sm91kwljijWN/s1600/horse+mri.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="245" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJeh1biUbKFuAjKPWkRFB5IuvhXxtRElDwRATLiJBNM3s1rbwNsHqdZcImD6xIAlxMa0PZ7weOYjqay4UyLo-iUy5hMLKalXLqkI94JmEFT1fY7pxtGux87vuKCXVYAEc8sm91kwljijWN/s320/horse+mri.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Previously, there have only been cumbersome way of analysing horse motion</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Following behaviour is when horses follow each other in a group. There are a number of instances of this:<br/><br/>
* Following as reproductive behaviour between a mare and a foal, parenting, early development<br/>
* Following as intermale interaction<br/>
* Trek as maintenance behaviour - locomotion<br/>
* Parallel prance as intermale behaviour<br/>
* Chase as either intermale behaviour or as play<br/>
* Fleeing in response to a threat or unfamiliar stimulus - stampede<br/><br/>
Why is this of interest? If we can learn the intricacies of horse-horse following and horse-human following, it could improve the training of horses. How is movement initiated when horse follows horse? When horses follow and mirror the speed and direction of humans, does the horse think that the human is another horse? Is this imprinting or is it learned?<br/><br/>
Mandy and Steve are working on HABIT - the <a href="http://www4.ntu.ac.uk/apps/news/187749-15/Giving_animals_a_voice_%E2%80%93_computer_software_that_could_tell_us_what_they_are_thinking.aspx">Horse Automated Behaviour Identification Tool</a>. This is considering the use of technology to automatically recognise horse behaviours. The goal is to automatically produce YouTube quality videos of automatic analysis of horse-horse and horse-human behaviours. From this it should be possible to asses equine behaviour from a welfare perspective and answer the questions, "Are horse interacting with humans as if they were other horses?" and "Are horse in training behaving 'normally'?" From here the programme aims to inform, increase people's knowledge base and aid training. There is a focus on low stress handling, welfare and safety and a consideration for species interactions.<br/><br/>
There are five bedrocks of HABIT<br/><br/>
1.Know your species. Where did it come from originally? How did it evolve? How was it domesticated? What is its social life like?<br/>
2.Sensory capabilities. How do they view the world? Humans and horses see colour differently because humans are tri-chromatic but horses are only b-chromatic. Horses also have very mobile ears<br/>
3.Communication. Reading body language - what do these expressions mean?<br/>
4.Our verbal and body language. What's in a name? Our words can make a difference in how others interact with a horse<br/>
5.Consider the individual, both nature and nurture<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdF9cdzwQTWS3dRerV633iSl3lL_cRhwgBuThnVrRdmMzKUtW4OIStpx8aMyKJGbUoFiXRWQTtxTXX4fj4pGRHIID0HmjAJw-bZN_zP6ufXG6dmN2tf8B1Pu4OcL67TBiPqqH2misSuW3A/s1600/species.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="249" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdF9cdzwQTWS3dRerV633iSl3lL_cRhwgBuThnVrRdmMzKUtW4OIStpx8aMyKJGbUoFiXRWQTtxTXX4fj4pGRHIID0HmjAJw-bZN_zP6ufXG6dmN2tf8B1Pu4OcL67TBiPqqH2misSuW3A/s320/species.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">There are many breeds of horse</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Using computer vision and machine learning, the system performs video based behaviour identification. It features helper apps that provide a smooth workflow and which processes longer videos into shorter clips ready for analysis by the main system. Computerised tracking and reliability is difficult in the field, as is automatically identifying different horses.<br/><br/>
Computer vision can be inflexible. Real time processing can also cause some issues compared to retrospective processing. Some simple behaviours can be processed in real time but more complex behaviours need to be processed. Longer videos are processed into short ones by first identifying segments that contain horses. The video is then summarised in a similar way to instant highlights in sport. The hardest thing to do is to identify those sections that contain horse action and this happens frame by frame using <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haar-like_features">Haar Cascades</a>.<br/><br/>
Haar Cascades were invented by Viola and Jones in 2002, named after Alfred Haar for his work in the 20th century on wavelets. It's a machine learning approach where software is trained from many positive and negative images and then used to detect objects in other images. It combines increasingly more complex classifiers into a cascade. It's used for face recognition, finger print recognition and number plate detection on motorways.<br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGJTwZilLNMzNL3XswnFF9eYVRfvSOd9r6zL4-VKmxvMgXXgheIZquXo8Lq2ShBbwac2fNrHDGYzFKAF6J5WpQMMsSyakS0PKWK1mgGNvhq38GYqjI09jGSxcCMUA1E7D-85Ndn8EjGQcn/s1600/haar.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="286" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGJTwZilLNMzNL3XswnFF9eYVRfvSOd9r6zL4-VKmxvMgXXgheIZquXo8Lq2ShBbwac2fNrHDGYzFKAF6J5WpQMMsSyakS0PKWK1mgGNvhq38GYqjI09jGSxcCMUA1E7D-85Ndn8EjGQcn/s320/haar.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">HAAR like features used in image processing</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
To train the system, the computer moves each member of a set of graphical shapes, called features, across the test image at different scales and orientations. Each of these features consists of contrasting regions of black and white rectangles. At each position, the code checks if the image contains a similar range of contrast to the current feature. The best features in a specific position, scale, etc are retained as useful classifiers. The best classifiers are separated in ever more complex stages, these sequential stages are the cascade. A test image can be rejected at an early stage, using a small number of classifiers, thus saving computing power.<br/><br/>
For an efficient detector for HABIT, there needs to be unique features of horses that are readily identifiable and visible from multiple viewpoints. The horse "ear detector" has proven to be quite efficient and when this is combined with detectors for "legs" and "side view", reliability increases. <br/><br/>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZf4nVzCqjtn7WdryP-hcqwQVp9VIR-i62SgmK5tnRPuXYua85Z_Tt08lZRY8ugRMUu8HIJsdP1wBG_oukjn3yf30FiSsL88kFHxoR3FlH9RcvprhBIPE-rXgoS-Vz-7DhdFzwTjKpFAWr/s1600/ear+detector.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZf4nVzCqjtn7WdryP-hcqwQVp9VIR-i62SgmK5tnRPuXYua85Z_Tt08lZRY8ugRMUu8HIJsdP1wBG_oukjn3yf30FiSsL88kFHxoR3FlH9RcvprhBIPE-rXgoS-Vz-7DhdFzwTjKpFAWr/s320/ear+detector.JPG" width="272" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Habit Ear Detector, detecting ears.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Next, we need to analyse the clips for behaviours. In the field of computer vision, this is sometimes called action spotting. Firstly, you train a classifier to decide if a behaviour is present in the test video clip. Then you repeat for all horse behaviours, of which there are lots. Then you can test a video clip with all of the classifiers and report one or more behaviours identified. To train the classifier, you have to extract key frames to build up a bag of visual words. From here histograms are built that enable you to identify examples of the behaviour that you're looking for.<br/><br/>
The next stages of the research are continuing the development of the HABIT system, especially the behaviour identification module. Then work needs to be done on collecting a video of specific behaviours for training and testing. From there, it might be possible to start applying HABIT-like approaches to behaviour identification in other species.<br/><br/>
The Public Lecture Series returns on the 20th of April at 6pm where Professor Philip Moriarty will talk about When the Quantum Uncertainty Principle Goes Up to 11. For more information, visit the Public Lecture Series website: <a href="http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/outreach/science-public-lectures.asp">http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/outreach/science-public-lectures.asp</a>x<br/><br/>
<u><b>Image Sources</u></b><br/>
All via Gav Squires<br /><br />
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-79662609238568536282017-04-02T07:44:00.000-07:002017-04-02T07:44:00.382-07:00Talk : Visual illusions reveal that the world is different from what we think<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
Following on from last year's success, the <a href="http://nottsbsa.org/science-park-2017/">Nottinghamshire branch of the British Science Association</a> again put on a series of talks at Science in the Park 2017, held at Wollaton Hall. <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/psychology/people/peter.mitchell">Professor Peter Mitchell</a> from the University of Nottingham gives a talk on "Our eyes deceive us: visual illusions reveal that the world is different from what we think". <a href="https://twitter.com/gavsquires">@Gav Squires</a> was there and has kindly written this guest post summarising the event, with some linkage added by NSB.<br/><br/>
How do we mis-perceive that world? The was that we see the world is inaccurate and this is demonstrated in the drawings that we produce of it. However, some people do see the world in a more accurate way and they are able to better represent what's actually there.<br/><br/>
Drawing has always been a core human activity. Even as far back as 30,000 years ago, humans were producing art on the walls of caves. Their knowledge of the world influence what they drew. By the Renaissance, artists had learned the laws of perspective by creating an invisible eye line. This enabled the three dimensional world to be represent on a two dimensional surface. The way that we draw the world is influence by the way that we see the world.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoYHXhZ6u14HyYHnyDjSpmfhk-zRzfrm-mSBjeOJaALLFVQtL6vYRWv0r6fNsgiBDm7tVVuN31faBwFsUDAEYUMawALgErFxCkQhZJTYeFfbAJdGMg94xL_u87tFSvrO8g-iFLwN-OQI7W/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="161" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoYHXhZ6u14HyYHnyDjSpmfhk-zRzfrm-mSBjeOJaALLFVQtL6vYRWv0r6fNsgiBDm7tVVuN31faBwFsUDAEYUMawALgErFxCkQhZJTYeFfbAJdGMg94xL_u87tFSvrO8g-iFLwN-OQI7W/s320/1.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cave Art</td></tr>
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When drawing something that we've seen in a photograph, we are guilty of "boundary extension" - putting in details that are outside the frame of the photo. We extrapolate from what we've actually seen. Is this because we want to draw complete object? No, even in the case where there are no cropped items in the photograph, we will still extend the boundary. This is because of our inherent knowledge of the world - we know that there is more than just what is in the photograph.<br/><br/>
Despite the invention of perspective, we have difficulty depicting three dimensions. For example, if we are drawing an object from a photograph that we know have 90 degree angles, then we will depict them as such even if they don't appear to be 90 degrees in the photograph. Our knowledge is contaminating our perception. Even someone like Raphael was guilty of this. We default to our knowledge.<br/><br/>
What about the drawings of children? These tend to focus on what children find important so when they are drawing a car, they will make a big deal of the boot as that's where they put their toys on journeys, for example. However, there is an example of a schoolchild of 11 drawing the reading room at the British Library. He only looked at the scene for ten minutes and took neither notes nor sketches but drew the whole thing from memory. He had autism, which explains why he could see the world more accurately and with more objectivity. He even drew the inside of the dome with correct perspective, which is incredibly difficult to do.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Library Drawing</td></tr>
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If we look at visual illusions, they reveal how we mis-perceive the world. The devil's triangle appears to be an impossible shape because of the way that we perceive 3D cues. The Shepard's table illusion shows two tables that appear to be different sizes but are, in fact, the same. People with autism are fooled less by this illusion that people without.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Visual Illusions</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsaXuIkD4Zh7sRmDNNX12PegRyM2JKPSnm7WzhDlzBqCidx89uv5CaGGzp5Zvw9IVwmDDbpRVywuDNtdT0sKvIHPUjxjHHv2BCudrdNOrGhTYzsaiFPMmGhvkl1Gq7ndc8H1Owe9c-wlV6/s1600/4.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="260" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsaXuIkD4Zh7sRmDNNX12PegRyM2JKPSnm7WzhDlzBqCidx89uv5CaGGzp5Zvw9IVwmDDbpRVywuDNtdT0sKvIHPUjxjHHv2BCudrdNOrGhTYzsaiFPMmGhvkl1Gq7ndc8H1Owe9c-wlV6/s320/4.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Shepard Illusion</td></tr>
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A lot of time and effort has gone into finding out what is "wrong" with autistic people and trying to "fix" them. However, they also have strengths. We should be looking to build on them and help them achieve their potential.<br/><br/>
<u><b>Image Sources</U></b><br />
All via Gav Squires
</span></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-43376756630221498682017-04-02T03:59:00.001-07:002017-04-02T04:00:06.907-07:00Talk - Photobiology - Effects of UV Radiation on Normal Skin<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
Graham Harrison formerly of <a href="http://www.kcl.ac.uk/lsm/research/divisions/gmm/departments/dermatology/Groups/Photobiology/index.aspx">Photobiology Dept</a> at St John's Institute of Dermatology, King's College London and now of the University of Nottingham comes to <a href="https://www.meetup.com/nottingham-culture-cafe-sci/events/230987965/">Café Sci</a> to talk about Photobiology - Effects of UV Radiation on Normal Skin. <a href="https://twitter.com/gavsquires">@Gav Squires</a> was there and has kindly written this guest post summarising the event, with some linkage added by NSB.<br/><br/>
Visible light has a wavelength between 400 and 700 nanometers. Around 1000 nanometers, you're into the infrared while down at 100 nanometers, you're into the ultraviolet. The shorter the wavelength, the more energy it contains. <br/><br/>
There are three types of ultraviolet radiation - UVA(longer wavelength), UVB and UVC(shorter wavelength). All of the UVC in sunlight is blocked by the atmosphere. Only 5% of the light that reaches the earth is ultraviolet and only 5% of that is UVB. UVA penetrates much deeper into the skin but UVB is responsible for 80% of sunburn. <br/><br/>
In fact, UVB is at least 1000 more powerful than UVA when it comes to causing sunburn. While UVB is also responsible for the production of vitamin D, as the ozone thins there is more of it coming through the atmosphere. <br/><br/>
We can measure the UV radiation using a radiometer. A broad band one is handheld while a more accurate spectroradiometer costs around £30,000. On the other hand, you can use a biological method and examine skin for levels of sunburn. This is done by examining the Minimum Erythema Dose (MED) - the point at which the skin starts to burn. This MED will change depending on the skin type. There are six skin types in all, ranging from Type-I (white), which has a high risk of sunburn and cancer to Type-VI (black), which has a low risk of both. <br/><br/>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Skin Types and their reaction to UV</td></tr>
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In all of the interactions between UV and skin, photochemistry precedes photobiology. The sunlight is absorbed by a molecule and its energy changes the molecule. This leads to a multitude of effects from tanning to sunburn to cell death to vitamin D photosynthesis. When the UV reaches the DNA, it causes photodamage. Then it binds to the DNA and can cause a mutation. It's possible to stain for the anti-bodies that are evidence of this damage. There was a time when you would have to do a biopsy to look at the scale of the damage but now it's possible to measure the excretion products in urine. <br/><br/>
Photoageing is caused when the tissue is damaged by sun exposure. It's actually damage to the collagen in the skin and is called solar elastosis. It is thought to be a UVA effect. DNA damage is also responsible for tanning. This happens when the pigment producing cells (melanocytes) in the skin are activated. Of course, the more serious outcome is skin cancer. The UV goes into the skin and causes a mutation where the DNA is repaired erroneously. The P53 gene usually stops tumours but if this is mutated you can get abnormal cell growth(dysplasia), then immunosuppression and this can lead to cancer. However, there are a number of factors can play a part in cancer forming, including physical environment, behavioural causes, non-behavioural causes and any prevention measures taken. With skin cancer, melanomas are only around 10% of the total skin cancers but they are the ones that kill you. <br/><br/>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The P53 Protein</td></tr>
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As well as humans, dolphins can get sunburnt. UV radiation can also damage your eyes, it leads to cataracts. Glass protects against UVB so glasses wearers are partly protected but you can still get a tan standing in a greenhouse. Plastic meanwhile will block all UV radiation. Sand on the other hand, reflects all UV and this is why you can get sunburnt particularly badly at the beach. <br/><br/>
UV radiation concentration is greatest at noon as the sunlight has to get through less of the atmosphere. There is also much more UV radiation in the summer. Although you do need to be careful because even on a cloudy day, there is UV damage happening to the skin. Most indoor workers get 50% of their annual UV exposure over a span of just 33 days. This usually includes their summer holiday. <br/><br/>
Sunscreens are specifically designed to stop sunburn rather than any of the other effects of UV such as ageing. Hence they are only interested in stopping the UVB. However they are generally not used as they should be. The recommended thickness is 2mg/cm2 of skin. This would require 32g of sunscreen to cover a woman's body and 38g to cover a man's. Since you are supposed to re-apply every three hours, your bottle isn't going to last very long and it's going to get very expensive very quickly. <br/><br/>
But what does the Sun Protection Factor(SPF) on a sunscreen actually mean? Well, if you could usually spend 20 minutes in the sun before burning then SPF6 would allow you to spend 6 times as long, 120 minutes, in the sun before you burnt. However, these tests are based on thick applications, which isn't how people use it. However, you will still get some benefit from it and even SPF2 blocks 50% of the light. SPF4 blocks 75% and SPF50 blocks 99%, which is why you can't get a higher SPF than 50. Sunscreen is also tested with a very artificial sunlight - equivalent to sunlight at the top of a mountain at the equator. <br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhp_r2hXUQ89Z4qdrhD40WGVxo5PwYQcAun5W4wcPL9n7uk7myrfQCqV70gHol832-zjS9po_aLB86G6js20TqCmIYcDwZe4VM6XJDlsITlJu0dHIg-yG5-8QeqLjpC7CSnoL2zM8ZK-4x9/s1600/Titanium%2528IV%2529_oxide.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="233" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhp_r2hXUQ89Z4qdrhD40WGVxo5PwYQcAun5W4wcPL9n7uk7myrfQCqV70gHol832-zjS9po_aLB86G6js20TqCmIYcDwZe4VM6XJDlsITlJu0dHIg-yG5-8QeqLjpC7CSnoL2zM8ZK-4x9/s320/Titanium%2528IV%2529_oxide.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Titanium Dioxide, a popular suncreen</td></tr>
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But the sun isn't all bad. As well as vitamin D creation, there is a feelgood factor from UV radiation. <br/><br/>
Café Sci returns to The Vat & Fiddle on April the 10th at 8pm when Dr Marcos Alcocer will talk on Food Allergies - What Are They And Why Do We Have Them? For more information, visit the Café Sci MeetUp page: <a href="https://www.meetup.com/nottingham-culture-cafe-sci/">https://www.meetup.com/nottingham-culture-cafe-sci/</a><br/><br/>
<u><b>Image Sources</u></b><br />
<a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/P53.png/460px-P53.png">P53</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Titanium(IV)_oxide.jpg">Tiox</a>, Skin Types via Gav Squires.<br /><br />
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-23050670794232242082017-03-28T13:43:00.001-07:002017-03-28T13:43:16.807-07:00Talk - Gravitational Waves and Black Holes<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
<a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/people/thomas.sotiriou">Dr Thomas Sotiriou</a> from the University of Nottingham recently gave a <a href="https://www.meetup.com/nottingham-culture-cafe-sci/">Café Sci</a> (or Café Scientifique et Cultural to give it its full name) talk on Gravitational Waves and Black Holes - Einstein's Amazing Legacy. <a href="https://twitter.com/gavsquires">@Gav Squires</a> was there and has kindly written this guest post summarising the event, with some linkage added by NSB.<br/><br/>
Dr Sotiriou began by describing how scientific theories are replaced with better ones, starting with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_universal_gravitation#Modern_form">Newton's law of universal gravitation</a>, which describes the gravitational forces between two bodies in terms of their masses and the distance between them - multiplied by a factor called the Gravitational Constant. <br/><br/>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Newton's law of universal gravitation</td></tr>
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Gravity doesn't just attract things, it determines how objects move in space. In Newton's time his theory unified how we understood gravity both on the scale of the solar system and also how it works on Earth. It was a theory that proved useful for 200 years. Then, in the 19th century, it was observed that the planet Mercury didn't really obey this theory. Its orbit was very slightly different to what was predicted but this didn't really concern anybody. At this time the outermost planet that had been discovered was Uranus and its orbit didn't match Newton's theory either. The observed orbit hinted that there was another planet that was affecting it - this is how Neptune was discovered. It was then thought that something similar must be happening to Mercury and so an innermost planet called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan_(hypothetical_planet)">Vulcan</a> was predicted. In reality, it was Newton's theory that was incorrect.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dr Thomas Sotiriou, with visual aid</td></tr>
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<br />
Einstein was very interested in light (his Nobel prize was for the discovery of the photoelectric effect). At the start of the 20th century it was known that observers moving at different speeds who are measuring the speed of light get the same value. This is counter-intuitive - if you're running straight at the light then surely you'd get a different speed. Einstein knew that the only way to explain this was that people moving at different speeds must have a different view of time and distance. This was the basis for his theory of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativity">special relativity</a>. Einstein realised that space and time were independent, this is where his idea of spacetime came from. To pin down an event you need to know where and when it happened. This revolutionised the way that people thought about physics. The theory of electromagnetism worked really well with special relativity but Newton's theory of gravity did not.<br/><br/>
Special relativity only relates to observes moving at constant speed. Einstein knew that to say something about observers that were accelerating, he would have to say something about gravity. For 10 years, he tried to formulate a theory that included both accelerating observers and gravity. The result was his theory of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity">general relativity</a> and it explains how matter curves spacetime. If we know what the matter distribution is then we know how spacetime will curve and this curvature tells matter how to move. This theory accounted for the deviations in Mercury's orbit.<br/><br/>
This didn't impress scientists, they wanted a prediction for some unknown thing that existed only in the theory. Einstein predicted the bending of light rays and a year after the theory was published Eddington proved it during an eclipse. This was not the only ground-breaking prediction. Special relativity told us that nothing could travel faster than light and general relativity showed that light is affected by gravity. If light feels this pull and has finite speed then if there was something of huge mass in a very small space not even light could escape its pull. This is what we call a black hole and was predicted by general relativity. People didn't believe it for a long time.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The day light was shown to be affected by gravity</td></tr>
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What happens when objects move around in space time? When a boat moves in water in causes ripples - the same thing happens in spacetime and this is where we get gravitational waves. This emits energy and this loss of energy causes objects to get closer together. This is happening with the Earth and the sun but it would take billions of years for the Earth to plunge into the sun. These emissions of energy are very small but when you come to black holes, the gravitational waves are much larger. It took four decades to develop the technology required to detect gravitational waves. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LIGO">LIGO</a> detector discovered the gravitational waves caused by the collision of two black holes. The energy emitted from the collision was more than the energy from all of the stars in the universe at that moment. Even so, the movement that LIGO detected was the size of an atom over 4km.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKxdktmfOoSlB-JOHuyeD0fYt7hxch3npHK7qF-ppBDQL1q3X1YJUB49XvI801gWN4gGHUXaDFikB69dCUZCTNCJL-nC3fdd4FlP8sOceZtxcO4tXn9LpiD0zdCNsjUsBKIDjnbjakps5B/s1600/Cafe+Sci+4.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="245" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKxdktmfOoSlB-JOHuyeD0fYt7hxch3npHK7qF-ppBDQL1q3X1YJUB49XvI801gWN4gGHUXaDFikB69dCUZCTNCJL-nC3fdd4FlP8sOceZtxcO4tXn9LpiD0zdCNsjUsBKIDjnbjakps5B/s320/Cafe+Sci+4.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The LIGO Black Hole collision</td></tr>
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<br />
Unlike with Newton's theory, general relativity has nothing to do with mass or forces - this is why it works with photons. While we know that energy and mass are related (E=MC2) but we don't need mass to have energy - photons have kinetic energy. It is actually energy that causes the curvature of spacetime. The famous equation E=MC2 actually only relates to mass at rest.<br/><br/>
General relativity is better than Newton's theory but could we eventually have an even better one? Are dark energy and dark matter the equivalent of the procession of Mercury for general relativity? General relativity isn't a quantum theory so it's possible that at some point we will get a new theory of gravity or maybe even a new theory of matter.<br/><br/>
Café Sci returns to The Vat & Fiddle on the 13th of March at 8pm where Graham Harrison from the University of Nottingham will talk on Photobiology - Effects Of UV Radiation On Normal Skin. For more information check out the MeetUp site: <a href="https://www.meetup.com/nottingham-culture-cafe-sci/">https://www.meetup.com/nottingham-culture-cafe-sci/</a><br/><br/>
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-83839351516822805872017-03-12T23:02:00.003-07:002017-03-12T23:07:53.410-07:00Talk : Things That Go Bang In The Night (Sky) <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
The University of Nottingham <a href="http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/outreach/science-public-lectures.aspx"> Science Public Lecture Series</a> had their February talk presented by <a href="http://nottingham.academia.edu/JOnions">Julian Onions</a> on the subject of Things That Go Bang In The Night (Sky). <a href="https://twitter.com/gavsquires">@Gav Squires</a> was there and has kindly written this guest post summarising the event, with a few additions from NSB who was also at the event.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Julian Onions</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Of everything in the universe what would go off with the biggest bang? At that size, scales are in the region of billions of years - astronomy is a slow science. And it's big, we talk about things in terms of solar masses. A solar mass is approximately 2x10^30kg.<br/><br/>
First a bit of solar theory. A big ball of gas collapses down and the pressure makes it get hotter and hotter and in the centre nuclear fusion happens. So there is gravity pushing inwards and energy pushing out and at some point these two forces reach equilibrium. The sun is around 15million degrees Kelvin at the centre. A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_dwarf">red dwarf</a> is around half a solar mass and it like a boiling pot. It last for a long time and it very efficient. The sun is a boiling mass at the edge but from around a third of the way out from the centre it is being held up by radiative pressure (light). Giant stars, from around five solar masses, are being held up by just light.<br/><br/>
When the sun runs out of fuel, the outward pressure will stop and gravity will win. It will contract down to around the size of the Earth and will become a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarf">white dwarf</a>. Then it will glow for hundreds of billions of years. In fact, no white dwarf formed since the beginning of the universe has gone out yet.<br/><br/>
Nova are new stars - they are things that suddenly brighten in the night sky. White dwarfs start to steal material from a fellow binary star, building up a hydrogen shell. This warms the star up and can cause the nuclear reactions to start again. It burns very fiercely and this is almost instantaneous and we get a burst of light. It happens for between 25 and 80 days and then it dims. This can happen several times.<br/><br/>
A white dwarf is around the size of the Earth and is less than 1.5 solar masses. A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_star">neutron star</a> is between 1.5 and 5 solar masses and is around 20km wide. A black hole is larger than 5 solar mases and has an even horizon that is around 30km across. Is there anything between a neutron star and a black hole? In a white dwarf matter goes into a fiery, squashed state called degenerate matter, which is very odd stuff. If you add more matter, it gets smaller. In a regular start matter is around 0.1kg/cm3. Degenerate matter is 10,000kg/cm3 while neutron star matter is 1014kg/cm3.<br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEigPRpgutw2r0iuOl0mj51sAzkguN49jVRb_BasCaeVyfl-NzWOD0pk6OZB96oHCW3-lW0VThRzYL2-zBaeRtaUZcS1uByweAbAh5F3td_-7ONqu6NDElIYHgpZdLEU_R5rOrSeGj4ywkLA/s1600/PLS2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="237" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEigPRpgutw2r0iuOl0mj51sAzkguN49jVRb_BasCaeVyfl-NzWOD0pk6OZB96oHCW3-lW0VThRzYL2-zBaeRtaUZcS1uByweAbAh5F3td_-7ONqu6NDElIYHgpZdLEU_R5rOrSeGj4ywkLA/s320/PLS2.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Masses of different star types compared</td></tr>
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<br />
At this point it's time to introduce a new unit of measure, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foe_(unit)">foe</a>. It's a unit of super nova power. One foe is equivalent to 10^44 Joules or around the same amount of energy in 186 Earths. To give that a little context in terms of "bang", the biggest hydrogen bomb we've ever developed is 10^17 Joules.<br/><br/>
A kilonova is around 10 foe. It happen when 2 neutron stars are orbiting each other, losing energy through gravitational waves. There is a huge explosion when the two stars become one and this is one of the major ways that heaver elements in the universe are created. This creates short gamma ray bursts but because neutron stars are difficult to see these kilonovas are hard to track down.<br/><br/>
There are several types of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova">supernova</a> - 1a/1ax/1b/1c, 2a/2p/2c/2b. Zwicky originally had other types but these have since been subsumed into one of these. Type 1a supernova detonate while 1b, 1c and all type 2 suffer from core collapse. <br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiW06ZFatax_inWtFPuee3UQPRT-TTbCLhPXuOWAR_akbuO8h0glwVB9WLP1T2rY2MpzYcNxDQOSCReD6pMey_60f4QR5e0YwIlSR_sl6frG4mTHQK5lzJGKT4NxsI82G_ruabWqCoSG8VC/s1600/PLS3.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="235" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiW06ZFatax_inWtFPuee3UQPRT-TTbCLhPXuOWAR_akbuO8h0glwVB9WLP1T2rY2MpzYcNxDQOSCReD6pMey_60f4QR5e0YwIlSR_sl6frG4mTHQK5lzJGKT4NxsI82G_ruabWqCoSG8VC/s320/PLS3.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Comparing supernova types </td></tr>
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<br />
Type 1a is around 1 foe in energy and is very similar to the nova. However, the white dwarf is a bit more advanced. It still steals material from a companion but rather than just the outer layers burning off it all lights up. The temperature gets to around 100,000,000 degrres Kelvin and then it explodes. This happens at the same point in every white dwarf - when it reaches around 1.5 solar masses. These are a favourite of astronomers as they almost always give off the same amount of light so it is easy to measure distance. They are almost like a "standard candle" for measuring the universe. <br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_IaDMUC2DmBk5DHraf2dVyVUJ0pQWkiMZ-MlkFLumz9fUhjUSnoOmbSPJ5K3RcFIRSSuhvmIko-_tOjk0YZbtSJEQ7UM9fw2o2tPR_JiOOtEPJ-AGOpiiSn4G_Z87oXSkSU_5691R55bD/s1600/PLS5.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_IaDMUC2DmBk5DHraf2dVyVUJ0pQWkiMZ-MlkFLumz9fUhjUSnoOmbSPJ5K3RcFIRSSuhvmIko-_tOjk0YZbtSJEQ7UM9fw2o2tPR_JiOOtEPJ-AGOpiiSn4G_Z87oXSkSU_5691R55bD/s320/PLS5.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN_1987A" target="_blank">SN1987a</a> - a recent Supernova</td></tr>
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<br />
Type 1ax was only discovered in 2013. It's where a white dwarf that has lost nearly all of its outer layer of hydrogen and helium goes supernova. Energy wise it's at maximum half a foe and probably around a third of supernova are of this type. <br/><br/>
In types 1b, 1c and 2 the hydrogen in the centre of the star is burnt off. Then the star starts burning the less efficient helium. To give some context, the sun will burn for 10 billion years using its hydrogen but only for an extra billion by burning its helium. By the time it reaches silicon, the star is getting desperate and when it reaches iron, it is using more energy to burn it than is being given off. With the power off, there is nothing to counteract the force of gravity. The star contracts at a third of the speed of light. The whole thing then stops, shudders and explodes but no-one knows why. One theory is that the gravity creates neutrinos - most of the energy comes out in neutrinos rather than light. The centre that is left is now a white dwarf or a neutron star. <br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuaIzOi-zDj97VFLnx9G8wwfyWWphum1vXWtrx-VBM9xJmIL1wYz0W-iC761lO8_u1uENPKniqRIfZF2RDPfpL-p8x-MBzLb4UJaDeLcoHuFLklnu32RFwhBhgdqi32tTz3EiuTDEh2IPA/s1600/PLS4.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuaIzOi-zDj97VFLnx9G8wwfyWWphum1vXWtrx-VBM9xJmIL1wYz0W-iC761lO8_u1uENPKniqRIfZF2RDPfpL-p8x-MBzLb4UJaDeLcoHuFLklnu32RFwhBhgdqi32tTz3EiuTDEh2IPA/s320/PLS4.JPG" width="280" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">"Onion Burning"</td></tr>
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<br />
In a type 1b, the star loses its outer layer of hydrogen so its surface is just helium. Type 1c loses its hydrogen and its helium so it has carbon and oxygen at its outer layers. Type 2l are between 5 and 100 foe but you don't see the actual explosion as it doesn't give out light. Then there is a Peak of luminosity, which slowly fades. Type 2p has a Peak of luminosity and then a plateau before the fade. Type 2n and 2b are all pretty much the same. <br/><br/>
A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superluminous_supernova">hypernova</a> is a much bigger star that explodes and these generate long gamma ray bursts. Again, they are caused by core collapse. For stats between 8 and 10 solar masses, electron capture takes away the power that was being used to support the star. The temperature gets up around 10^10 degrees Kelvin and then the whole thing catches fire. Between 10 and 140 solar masses, the star suffers from iron core collapse. Between 140 and 250 solar masses, the star suffers from pair instability. Very high energy gamma rays are produced and the energy coming out goes into creating matter rather than supporting the star. These are very rare. Over 250 solar masses and you get photodisintegration. The star turns in on itself and the iron is turned into helium. This then turns into a black hole. The size and the amount of heavy metal in a star determines its fate.<br/><br/>
What of other "bangs" in the night sky? The recent detection of gravitation waves was caused by two black holes colliding. Three solar masses worth of energy were given off, around 5300 foe. So, what if two super massive black holes collided? These are 1,000,000 solar masses each and could happen when two galaxies collide. This is a very rare occurrence and it would also be quite a drawn out affair - the two super massive black holes would orbit each other for a billion years. Super massive black holes give off 10^9 foe of energy anyway, this is emitted constantly over millions of years.<br/><br/>
Then of course there is the big one, literally. The big bang gave off 10^25 foe of energy. It took around 20 minutes and then the universe went into a decline for the next 300,000 years. That's a one off though and the likelihood of a local black hole collision is very low. So, the supernova is the winner. If a supernova goes off in our galaxy it will probably be visible during the day and Betelgeuse is a candidate to go off in the not too distant future.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYzAxxfE6r_gARrcwizSlnuSU4I0DjzC7uofAExmXayTlwkdOmg0HvQRhm24gGiRl96l9iIgqNVYp5O_GofiRFCbwmBeSw8LuirZLnoIQ_bekDiWKYKglMZwjlDYLZqTkaU0xsy1-du_Ax/s1600/PLS6.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="245" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYzAxxfE6r_gARrcwizSlnuSU4I0DjzC7uofAExmXayTlwkdOmg0HvQRhm24gGiRl96l9iIgqNVYp5O_GofiRFCbwmBeSw8LuirZLnoIQ_bekDiWKYKglMZwjlDYLZqTkaU0xsy1-du_Ax/s320/PLS6.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">So, which big bang are we most likely to see....</td></tr>
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<br />
The Public Lecture series returns on the 16th of March where Dr Mandy Roshier and Dr Steve North will be talking about Bits & Bytes - When Horses Meet Computers. For more information visit the UoN website: https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/outreach/science-public-lectures.aspx<br/><br/>
<u><b>Image sources</u></b><br/>
All courtesy of Gav Squires from the talk<br/><br/>
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4496140522786544836.post-82116213953170322912017-03-12T20:51:00.001-07:002017-03-12T21:07:43.094-07:00Talk : Thinking outside the (pill) box): alternative drug delivery strategies<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">
The University of Nottingham <a href="http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/outreach/science-public-lectures.aspx"> Science Public Lecture Series</a>started 2017 with a talk by <a href="http://www.sciencelive.net/user/559/">Claire Sycamore</a> entitled "Thinking Outside the (Pill) Box - Alternative Drug Delivery Strategies". Claire is a PhD student in <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/chemistry/people/neil.thomas">Prof Neil Thomas's</a> research group in the UoN Faculty of Science. <a href="https://twitter.com/gavsquires">@Gav Squires</a> was there and has kindly written this guest post summarising the event, with a few additions from NSB who was also at the event.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Claire Sycamore</td></tr>
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<br />
<u><b>Local vs Systemic delivery</u></b><br />
Pharmacology is the superhero of our time, different from other treatments such as surgery or radiology. It first came to prominence in the 1930s following the discovery of penicillin in 1928. These days a person will take on average 14,000 prescription pills and 40,000 non-prescription pills. The three most popular non-prescription drugs are all non-targeted and you can actually take quite large maximum doses in a day:<br/><br/>
Paracetamol - 4.0g<br/>
Ibuprofen - 1.2g<br/>
Asprin - 3.6g<br/><br/>
Drug delivery systems are all about the interaction at the point that the drug is taken. By working on these systems you can improve the efficacy and the safety of the drugs and control the rate and location of the drug being released. A drug delivery system is something that is given at the same time as the drug.<br/><br/>
Ibuprofen has a ph of 4.4, is not very well absorbed and can lead to stomach ulcers. It acts on a fatty hormone called prostaglandin H2 and has two forms "R" & "S". It is only the "S" form that actually works as a painkiller (although the but R can be converted into S in your body over time).<br/><br/>
Ideally, we would have something that works locally, not just systematically. For example, the anti-fungal drug <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terbinafine">Terbinafine</a> can be applied as a cream to the affected area or taken as a tablet. When you take a tablet, the whole body is flooded with the drug. This can lead to strong side effects such as problems with the kidney and the liver.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYQELnBFkfapGILReTdEvlTNPO9-yyg9p_kF35lRFrQrIVaczFd-Pn9BMkaAAExwaroxfQwzRNRvbF01W3-yxi0eSFScpCZW83Q-YPG-atIunAc0LRdO9K15A1i3z8QXFmx4CFyatu-E4N/s1600/paracetalmot.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYQELnBFkfapGILReTdEvlTNPO9-yyg9p_kF35lRFrQrIVaczFd-Pn9BMkaAAExwaroxfQwzRNRvbF01W3-yxi0eSFScpCZW83Q-YPG-atIunAc0LRdO9K15A1i3z8QXFmx4CFyatu-E4N/s320/paracetalmot.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Common painkillers and their max allowed dosages</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<u><b>Microneedles</u></b><br />
So, we need to look at routes of delivery - how the drug gets into the body, for example orally, inhalation, injection. One of the latest inventions
is the <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169409X12001251">microneedle</a> (see also <a href="http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/engagement/exhibitions/gb-bioscience-festival/microneedles-taking-pain-out-of-injections/">here</a>). Needles in general are a great way of getting a drug into a body quickly. They are easy to use and cheap to produce. However, not everyone likes needles and there can be issues with training people to use them properly, for example with diabetes patients. Microneedles avoid all pain, you don't actually feel them piercing the skin. There's less to be fearful of, it requires no training and it give precise localisation. They can even be used to deliver drugs straight into the eye. The only real issue with microneedles is that they can only be used for drugs that you inject.<br/><br/>
For drugs that can't easily be delivered by microneedles, a key area of research is delivery vehicles - getting the drugs get to the places that they need to go. Nanotechnology and nanoparticles are the big thing here, allowing controlled targeting and greatly reducing side effects. <br/><br/>
But why nanoparticles? <br/><br/>
Due to their size nanoparticles have a greater mass to surface ratio. They also have some quantum properties, in that they act more like a wave in some respects. They also have the ability to absorb and carry other compounds. Can we assume that something that works at the "bulk" scale will be just as effective at the nano level?<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKmhyphenhyphenT2sn5qp1CDRqLM2ZLaiRcJpCSchJzYDHGaxHVZLzUoXzGmj0ssll5Cr3cgQHZvukRmGzb3ndYhsc5wJCmS5d7KUSGF8xqCJIosXwPc64bIP22VR8s3OdoO92Cb6Vj63Dca9mIEWW8/s1600/microneedles.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKmhyphenhyphenT2sn5qp1CDRqLM2ZLaiRcJpCSchJzYDHGaxHVZLzUoXzGmj0ssll5Cr3cgQHZvukRmGzb3ndYhsc5wJCmS5d7KUSGF8xqCJIosXwPc64bIP22VR8s3OdoO92Cb6Vj63Dca9mIEWW8/s320/microneedles.JPG" width="292" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Microneedles (Copyright: Ryan Donnelly, Queen''s University Belfast)</td></tr>
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<u><b>Prodrugs</u></b><br />
Getting drugs to the target areas is particularly important in cancer treatment, where the drugs are designed to kill cells and have harsh side effects. These side effects are one reason that an estimated 50% of cancer patients do not comply with their medication pathways. If we can target just the tumour then we can reduce these side effects and make treatment better for patients.<br/><br/>
This can be done by using something called a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodrug">pro-drug</a>. These are drugs which are inactive when administered and are converted within the body, often by an enzyme, into a therapeutic drug. <br/><br/>
Prodrugs have been tested on mice where the enzyme is added to a c<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridia">lostridia</a> bacteria and then <a href="https://www.quora.com/What-is-microbial-spore">spores</a>(dormant forms of the bacteria) are taken. These spores are injected into a mouse and then allowed to grow for a couple of weeks. Critically, clostridia bacteria (and the enzymes they carry) will only grow in a low oxygen environment - like a tumour. Then, when the pro-drug is injected it will only activate in the tumour because that is the only place where the bacteria (and hence enzymes) are. You can read more on this research <a href="http://clostridia.net/CDEPT.htm">here</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEPT_(medicine)">here</a>.<br/><br/>
<u><b>Polymer delivery systems</u></b><br />
Another problem is the rise in antibiotic resistance. For example, an <a href="http://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/17/510227493/a-superbug-that-resisted-26-antibiotics">American woman died</a> in January despite being given all 26 available antibiotics.<br/><br/>
According to the World Health Organisation, "Without effective antimicrobials for prevention and treatment of infections, medical procedures such as organ transplantation, cancer chemotherapy, diabetes management and major surgery (for example, caesarean sections or hip replacements) become very high risk."<br/><br/>
A potential answer to the threat of antibiotic resistance is to use plastics for drug delivery. Plastics are a type of polymer (incidentally so is DNA) and polymers have a number of advantages in the body:<br/><br/>
Timeable<br/>
Versatile<br/>
Easy to prepare<br/>
Reduces dosing frequency<br/>
Maintain therapeutic concentration with one dose<br/>
Reduced side effects<br/>
Improved stability<br/>
Prolonged release<br/><br/>
However, we need to consider what happens with this plastic long term. How long is acceptable to leave in the body? So, we need to find a biodegradable polymer. This isn't as straightforward as it could be as you need the right enzymes and bacteria to degrade the polymer. For example, a biodegradable polymer wouldn't actually degrade in a landfill because it is too dry and there is too little oxygen so the enzymes and bacteria can't survive there.<br/><br/>
There are some very specific requirements for this plastic. It has to be bio-compatible, non-toxic, permeable, biodegradable, pure and with a high tensile strength. There are three plastics that are being looked at, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polylactic_acid">PLA</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyglycolide">PGA</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281518981_Polytrimethylene_carbonate-based_polymers_engineered_for_biodegradable_functional_biomaterials">PTMC</a>. The later seems to be the best choice as it is resistant to hydrolysis, which means that it sticks around longer and it isn't brittle.<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDicKtNCgVT36hB7gZ_4_DgsjD8bxYs1dW0JMx0PmDxrJnYSGM4-vFn8PsRtuCwbVDO2Usv1nlafGfHtRw8MU44d787terhxbM19gdgJNkQLcUQunsk8VVm71gas6cAZK0zZpnxTMLSC0b/s1600/PLS4.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDicKtNCgVT36hB7gZ_4_DgsjD8bxYs1dW0JMx0PmDxrJnYSGM4-vFn8PsRtuCwbVDO2Usv1nlafGfHtRw8MU44d787terhxbM19gdgJNkQLcUQunsk8VVm71gas6cAZK0zZpnxTMLSC0b/s320/PLS4.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Polymers for drug delivery</td></tr>
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How can we alter the properties of PTMC to make it into the delivery system that we want? Through using technical processes such as cross-linking, copolymerization and functionalization to incorporate functional side chains. The idea is to attach antibiotics into the basic structure of the PTMC. The antibiotics <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentamicin">Gentamicin</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clindamycin">Clindamycin</a> are both being looked at with regard to this process as they cause severe side effects (Gentamicin can cause permanent deafness). You can read more about this research <a href="http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/research/groups/bridging/impact/drug-delivery-polymer-degradation.aspx">here</a>.<br/><br/>
Different delivery vehicles to get drugs into the eye are also being looked at. 95% of dose placed in the eye using a dropper is washed away. Is there a better way? Work has started on a contact lens that would include an antibiotic imprinted into it. That way the drug is trapped between the contact lens and the cornea - See UoN's research <a href="http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/39083/">here</a> and also some work by Harvard <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2009/TECH/science/07/22/contact.lens.drugs">here</a>. <br/><br/>
Another big area of research is on the cargo - the drug itself. Does it have to be a small molecule? For example, even though there is no human-human transmission at the moment, there are huge fears about H5N1 influenza, also known as bird flu. It has a 60% mortality rate and would be a massive issue if it became pandemic. So a nanovaccine has been created, which is preventative rather than curative (some background can be found in <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/biosciences/documents/community/public-talks/influenzatalk.pdf">this</a> UoN pdf presentation and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28117173">this</a> research from the US).<br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgCu0SuinCmo304xahHKCUB-UQea-EVAEt-WrsPRJ8-7VkJW4Pl2WdZzcbvS8mMYZ8O7E7PnE3tpZGqb4c4c2qG7OJD8CNDkX2rMfx3EiPVHEr0sEqPzDf5iosIox6awYyyfA-mH8drxEaR/s1600/3D_Influenza_virus.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="237" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgCu0SuinCmo304xahHKCUB-UQea-EVAEt-WrsPRJ8-7VkJW4Pl2WdZzcbvS8mMYZ8O7E7PnE3tpZGqb4c4c2qG7OJD8CNDkX2rMfx3EiPVHEr0sEqPzDf5iosIox6awYyyfA-mH8drxEaR/s320/3D_Influenza_virus.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Flu Virus </td></tr>
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<u><b>Virus Like Particles</u></b><br />
The final area of research is targeting strategies. The exterior of a virus is often a protein polymer cage known as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsid">capsid</a>. So called "<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus-like_particle">virus like particles</a>" mimic these capsids and tripper an antibody resonse that protects the vaccine recipient from later infection. An example of this technology is the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardasil">Gardasil</a> HPV vaccine.<br/><br/>
You can also make these biological cages from things such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferritin">Ferritin</a>, a storage protein for iron. The cage can opened and closed by varying the pH of the environment - while the cage is open, the iron can replaced by other things such as cancer drugs. <br/><br/>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBB0nbV_lJjZJ7tT98tkQ2G2EYFGWxVg6nnJZR1jHBwZSI8JD781dH9XOI5OayAiVg3y3uSE-r7XwmsPoq2UdVdifAmW2Gy3esuHsH_3XJHxLnRATmNqkcO4NGJBn8reWurKFXGCj1jEc-/s1600/480px-Ferritin.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBB0nbV_lJjZJ7tT98tkQ2G2EYFGWxVg6nnJZR1jHBwZSI8JD781dH9XOI5OayAiVg3y3uSE-r7XwmsPoq2UdVdifAmW2Gy3esuHsH_3XJHxLnRATmNqkcO4NGJBn8reWurKFXGCj1jEc-/s320/480px-Ferritin.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ferritin</td></tr>
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<u><b>Final Comments</u></b><br />
Of course there are crossovers between lots of these areas of research. It may take a while for some to reach the public but these are exciting times in the field of drug delivery strategies.<br/><br/>
Overall, it is clear that the direction of travel is for new drugs to be highly targetted so that only milligram dosages are required - aspirin certainly would not be licensed today!<br/><br/>
The Public Lecture Series returns to the University of Nottingham on the 16th of February at 6:00pm where Julian Onions will talk about Things That Go Bang In The Night (Sky) For more information, please visit the Public Lecture Series site: <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/outreach/science-public-lectures.aspx">https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/physics/outreach/science-public-lectures.aspx</a><br/><br/>
<u><b>Image Sources</u></b><Br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ferritin.png">Ferritin</a><br />
Microneedles - Copyright: Ryan Donnelly, Queen''s University Belfast<br />
Images from Talk - Copyright : Gav Squires<br />
<a href="Wikipedia/commons/3/3b/3D Influenza virus.png">Flu Virus</a><br />
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